{"id":464,"date":"2018-05-31T14:30:56","date_gmt":"2018-05-31T13:30:56","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/?p=464"},"modified":"2018-06-04T15:57:47","modified_gmt":"2018-06-04T14:57:47","slug":"quizz-tech-estival","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/quizz-tech-estival","title":{"rendered":"Le quizz techno de l'\u00e9t\u00e9","raw":"Le quizz techno de l'\u00e9t\u00e9"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-522 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1-1320x1320.jpg 1320w, https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/spring-break-tech-quiz\">Read this post in english<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"Summer is coming up.\">L&rsquo;\u00e9t\u00e9 arrive. <\/span><span title=\"It is about time to check what you really know about the techs that &quot;might&quot; replace you during your vacations. \">C&rsquo;est le bon moment pour v\u00e9rifier l&rsquo;\u00e9tat de vos connaissances sur les technologies qui pourraient bien vous remplacer pendant vos vacances.<\/span><\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"I hear about &quot;technology&quot; all the time.\">J&rsquo;entends parler de \u00abtechnologie\u00bb tout le temps. Les<\/span><span title=\"All finance professionals around me seems to be very excited about it, and eager to take full advantage of it, or at the opposite, scared it might eventually make their job irrelevant. \"> professionnels de la finance qui m&rsquo;entourent en particulier, semblent soit tr\u00e8s enthousiastes \u00e0 ce sujet, soit, au contraire, franchement effray\u00e9s quant \u00e0 la p\u00e9rennit\u00e9 de leur emploi.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"But when I scrape just a little bit under the surface, for both of them, I realize that most of them often don't really know much about it. \">Mais quand je gratte juste un peu sous la surface, pour chacun d&rsquo;eux, je r\u00e9alise que <strong>nombre d&rsquo;entre eux ne savent pas grand chose sur ces sujets<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"I don't know much about it either.\">Soyons honn\u00eate, <strong>je n&rsquo;en sais pas beaucoup non plus.<\/strong> C<\/span><span title=\"And this is why I constantly read and watch on various tech subjects in order keep up.\">&lsquo;est pourquoi je lis et m&rsquo;informe constamment sur ces sujets afin de me maintenir la t\u00eate hors de l&rsquo;eau. <\/span><span title=\"This is hard and time consuming but I do think it is unavoidable, and that everyone should do it. \">C&rsquo;est difficile et consomme un temps fou, mais c&rsquo;est incontournable.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"So here is a quick and modest ( I do not pretend to be an expert in those subjects ) little quiz that will check your &quot;basic&quot; knowledge about the 3 main &quot;hot techs&quot; of this spring in service driven industries : crypto &amp; blockchain,\">Voici donc un petit quiz qui v\u00e9rifiera vos connaissances \u00ab\u00a0de base\u00a0\u00bb sur les trois \u00ab\u00a0hot technologies\u00a0\u00bb du moment : <strong>crypto &amp; blockchain, <\/strong><\/span><strong><span title=\"artificial intelligence and quantum computers. \">intelligence artificielle et ordinateurs quantiques.<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"It won't cover much, it won't give you every information you need.\">Il ne couvrira pas beaucoup, il ne vous donnera pas toutes les informations dont vous avez besoin. <\/span><span title=\"But I do hope you will find it interesting, and that it will help you get interested and further pursue a better understanding of those subjects and the various myths that surround them! \">Mais j&rsquo;esp\u00e8re que vous le trouverez int\u00e9ressant, et que cela vous aidera et vous motivera pour poursuivre vers une meilleure compr\u00e9hension de ces sujets et des divers mythes qui les entourent!<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"Oh and don't be scared about the first question !\">Oh, et ne prenez pas peur d\u00e8s la premi\u00e8re question! <\/span><span title=\"Every bit of explanation is in the answers...\">Elle peut faire un peu <\/span><span title=\"Every bit of explanation is in the answers...\">peur&#8230; mais rassurez vous tout est expliqu\u00e9 dans les r\u00e9ponses !<br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><!--more--><\/span><\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Th\u00e8me 1. Blockchain &amp; Crypto<\/span><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.1. L&rsquo;algorithme sur lequel repose le bitcoin est : <\/strong><strong><br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Un algorithme de cryptage sym\u00e9trique<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Un algorithme de cryptage asym\u00e9trique<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Un algorithme de hachage (<em>hashing<\/em>)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Mais de quoi vous parlez ?<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 3 &#8211; Un algorithme de hachage<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"A hashing algorithm is a function that transforms a simple text into a very complex one of a fixed length.\">Un algorithme de hachage est une fonction qui transforme un texte simple et quelconque en un texte tr\u00e8s complexe et d&rsquo;une longueur fixe. <\/span><span title=\"The main idea is that while it is impossible to find the starting text (usually a password or a file) from the ending text, the same starting text will always be transformed into the same ending one.\">L&rsquo;id\u00e9e principale est que s&rsquo;il est impossible de trouver le texte de d\u00e9part (g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement un mot de passe ou un fichier) \u00e0 partir du texte final, le m\u00eame texte de d\u00e9part sera toujours transform\u00e9 dans le m\u00eame texte final. <\/span><span title=\"This allows to store your passwords securely (kind of... just hashing them is not enough actually) by keeping just the &quot;hashed&quot; version of it.\">Ceci permet de stocker vos mots de passe en toute s\u00e9curit\u00e9 (plus ou moins&#8230; ce n&rsquo;est pas suffisant en r\u00e9alit\u00e9) en gardant juste la version \u00ab\u00a0hach\u00e9e\u00a0\u00bb de celui-ci. <\/span><span title=\"When you type your password later, the website just have to hash it again and check that it match what they have. \">Lorsque vous tapez votre mot de passe plus tard, le site Web n&rsquo;a alors qu&rsquo;\u00e0 le hacher \u00e0 nouveau et v\u00e9rifier que cela correspond \u00e0 ce qu&rsquo;il a. <strong>Il peut v\u00e9rifier un mot de passe sans le poss\u00e9der.<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"One other very important characteristic of a hashing algorithm is its &quot;avalanche effect&quot; which means that a very small change in the input should change the ouput entirely.\">Une autre caract\u00e9ristique tr\u00e8s importante d&rsquo;un algorithme de hachage est son <strong>\u00ab\u00a0effet d&rsquo;avalanche\u00a0\u00bb<\/strong>, ce qui signifie qu&rsquo;un tr\u00e8s petit changement dans l&rsquo;entr\u00e9e devrait compl\u00e8tement changer la sortie. <\/span><span title=\"If you want to try this out in reality just go here ! \">Si vous voulez essayer cela en r\u00e9alit\u00e9, vous pouvez <a href=\"https:\/\/passwordsgenerator.net\/sha256-hash-generator\/\">essayer ici<\/a>, c&rsquo;est tr\u00e8s intuitif !<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"The bitcoin blockchain is constructed on the SHA-256 hashing algorithm ( SHA for Secure Hashing Algorithm).\">La <em>blockchain<\/em> bitcoin est construite sur l&rsquo;<strong>algorithme de hachage SHA-256<\/strong> (SHA pour <em>Secure Hashing Algorithm<\/em>). <\/span><span title=\"Bitcoin miners are actually trying all day to find &quot;passwords&quot; whose hash start with a certain number of zeros in order to &quot;sign&quot; new blocks.\">Les mineurs de Bitcoin essayent en fait toute la journ\u00e9e de trouver des \u00ab\u00a0mots de passe\u00a0\u00bb dont la version hach\u00e9e commence par un certain nombre de z\u00e9ros, ceci afin de \u00ab\u00a0signer\u00a0\u00bb de nouveaux blocs de transactions.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.2. A quel point cet algorithme est-il s\u00fbr ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Assez s\u00fbr, l&rsquo;algorithme SHA256 pourrait \u00eatre \u00ab\u00a0craqu\u00e9\u00a0\u00bb en 1 an par mon ordinateur.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Tr\u00e8s <span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">s\u00fbr<\/span>, il faudrait 10 ans.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Pas de probl\u00e8me, il faudrait plus de 1.000 ans.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">C&rsquo;est tellement s\u00fbr qu&rsquo;il est difficile de l&rsquo;exprimer.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 !<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Une excellente illustration de ceci peut \u00eatre trouv\u00e9e dans cette <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=S9JGmA5_unY\">amusante vid\u00e9o<\/a>, regardez-la.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Attention, ceci signifie que l&rsquo;algorithme est <strong>incroyablement s\u00e9curis\u00e9&#8230; face aux attaques par force brute<\/strong> (c&rsquo;est \u00e0 dire \u00ab\u00a0allez j&rsquo;essaye toutes les combinaisons une \u00e0 une\u00a0\u00bb)<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>MAIS il pourrait ne pas rester s\u00e9curis\u00e9 \u00e0 l&rsquo;avenir<\/strong>. C&rsquo;est vraiment une question de puissance de calcul. <span class=\"\">L&rsquo;algorithme est s\u00e9curis\u00e9 pour le moment, mais les ordinateurs seront plus rapides et efficaces dans le futur (voire en particulier la partie sur les ordinateurs quantiques), et cela pourrait ne pas rester vrai.<\/span> De plus, il est r\u00e9ellement s\u00e9curis\u00e9 pour des entr\u00e9es longues et complexes, et pas du tout pour les entr\u00e9es simples \/ courtes, car des nombreux hash simples sont pr\u00e9calcul\u00e9s et disponibles facilement&#8230; alors <strong>gardez vos mots de passe tr\u00e8s longs, comme on vous l&rsquo;a d\u00e9j\u00e0 dit!<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.3. Quel est le <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">moindre<\/span> des probl\u00e8mes de la blockchain ?<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Son principe de livre publique et distribu\u00e9 des transactions implique une faible confidentialit\u00e9.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Elle est con\u00e7ue pour utiliser une puissance de calcul de plus en plus grande, et \u00e9norm\u00e9ment d&rsquo;\u00e9nergie.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Elle peut \u00eatre un peu lente.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Elle utilise un algorithme de consensus et est donc th\u00e9oriquement sujet \u00e0 des attaques de consensus.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 1 &#8211; <span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"> une faible confidentialit\u00e9<\/span><br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"Actually it is quite the opposite.\">En fait, c&rsquo;est tout le contraire. <\/span><span title=\"The strong confidentiality of the cryptocurrencies blockchains, makes it harder for governments to trace illegal activities and especially money laundering schemes.\">La forte confidentialit\u00e9 (chaque participant \u00e0 un identifiant anonyme) des crypto-monnaies fait qu&rsquo;<strong>il est plus difficile pour les gouvernements de retracer les activit\u00e9s ill\u00e9gales<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"It is still possible to trace bitcoins and matching money outflows, but is makes it a lot harder (kind of an anonymous Swiss bank account if you want an old shool comparison). \">Il est encore possible de tracer des bitcoins et les sorties d&rsquo;argent r\u00e9el correspondantes, mais cela rend la surveillance beaucoup plus difficile ( un peu comme le fameux compte num\u00e9rot\u00e9 en Suisse de la grande \u00e9poque ).<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"2 is very true, and problematic, especially for bitcoin where the total electric power needed to &quot;mine&quot; (finding the &quot;passwords&quot; that have the required hash ) has gone crazy.\">2 est tr\u00e8s vrai, et probl\u00e9matique, en particulier pour bitcoin o\u00f9 <strong>la puissance \u00e9lectrique totale n\u00e9cessaire pour \u00ab\u00a0miner\u00a0\u00bb<\/strong> (trouver les \u00ab\u00a0mots de passe\u00a0\u00bb qui ont le hash requis) <strong>est devenue folle<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"This is a grave ecological issue.\">C&rsquo;est un grave probl\u00e8me \u00e9cologique. <\/span><span title=\"And the way the blockchain is designed can only make it worse in the future. \">Et la fa\u00e7on dont la blockchain est con\u00e7ue ne peut qu&rsquo;aggraver ce probl\u00e8me \u00e0 l&rsquo;avenir.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"3 is true especially for large blockchains where there is miner congestion.\">3 est vrai et en particulier pour les grandes \u00ab\u00a0blockchain\u00a0\u00bb o\u00f9 il y a une congestion mini\u00e8re (les mineurs n&rsquo;arrivent plus \u00e0 traiter toutes les transactions assez rapidement). <\/span><span title=\"For example a bitcoin transaction can be processed from a few minutes to a few days... which is very very slow compared to the current speed of financial transactions that can happen numerous time within a second. \">Par exemple <strong>une transaction bitcoin peut \u00eatre trait\u00e9e entre quelques minutes et quelques jours<\/strong> selon le volume de transactions&#8230; ce qui est tr\u00e8s tr\u00e8s lent par rapport \u00e0 la vitesse actuelle des transactions financi\u00e8res traditionelles.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"4 is theoretically true, and a real concern.\">4 est th\u00e9oriquement vrai, et une r\u00e9elle pr\u00e9occupation. <\/span><span title=\"As blockchain are not &quot;owned&quot; by anyone but their participants, it is possible for a very large group representing more than a large part all participants to conduct attacks by simply changing the rules of the blockchain.\">Etant donn\u00e9 que les <em>blockchains<\/em> ne sont \u00ab\u00a0poss\u00e9d\u00e9s\u00a0\u00bb par personne d&rsquo;autre que leurs participants, il est possible qu&rsquo;un groupe d&rsquo;entre eux, repr\u00e9sentant plus qu&rsquo;une grande partie de tous les participants, <strong>m\u00e8ne des attaques en changeant simplement les r\u00e8gles de la blockchain<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"While this is highly improbable for large blockchains like bitcoin, it is more problematic for other smaller chains, mainly owned by their creators.\">Bien que cela soit hautement improbable pour les grandes <em>blockchains<\/em> comme le Bitcoin, c&rsquo;est plus probl\u00e9matique pour les autres petites cha\u00eenes, principalement d\u00e9tenues par leurs cr\u00e9ateurs. Garre aux petites ICO !!!<br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.4.\u00a0 Une application potentielle int\u00e9ressante des <em>blockchain<\/em> est la possibilit\u00e9 de cr\u00e9er des march\u00e9s financiers d\u00e9centralis\u00e9s. Quels avantages cela apporterait-il ?<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cela r\u00e9duirait le co\u00fbt de l&rsquo;investissement.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cela donnerait plus de contr\u00f4le sur les donn\u00e9es financi\u00e8res.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cela aiderait \u00e0 stabiliser le syst\u00e8me financier gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 une meilleure d\u00e9termination du cours des actions.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Cela pourrait permettre un financement plus direct des projets d&rsquo;entreprise.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Tout cela sauf le 3 !<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Bien que l&rsquo;avantage 3 (meilleure d\u00e9couverte de prix) n&rsquo;est pas \u00e0 priori faux, il n&rsquo;y a absolument aucune preuve de cela, et \u00ab\u00a0la d\u00e9couverte du prix\u00a0\u00bb est en fait d\u00e9j\u00e0 tr\u00e8s bonne sur les march\u00e9s actuels.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Le principal avantage des \u00abmarch\u00e9s financiers <em>blockchain<\/em>\u00bb est qu&rsquo;<strong>ils ne seraient plus li\u00e9s \u00e0 des interm\u00e9diaires couteux<\/strong>: pas de banques d\u00e9tenant des titres, pas de courtiers, pas de soci\u00e9t\u00e9s de change, pas de chambres de compensation &#8230; Cela signifie que les points 1 et 2 seraient particuli\u00e8rement vrais.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Les co\u00fbts associ\u00e9s \u00e0 l&rsquo;investissement diminueraient fortement et tout le monde aurait le contr\u00f4le sur toutes ses donn\u00e9es financi\u00e8res, les banques, en particulier, ne pourraient plus conserver les donn\u00e9es de leurs clients comme elles le font actuellement.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">4. est vrai aussi mais pas encore vraiment impl\u00e9ment\u00e9.<\/span> En cr\u00e9ant une <em>blockchain<\/em> d&rsquo;actions ou d&rsquo;obligations, <strong>les entreprises pourraient lever des capitaux diff\u00e9remment et potentiellement plus efficacement<\/strong>. <span class=\"\">Mais ce n&rsquo;est pas si facile et pour l&rsquo;instant m\u00eame les \u00ab\u00a0crowdlender\u00a0\u00bb n&rsquo;ont pas encore r\u00e9ussi \u00e0 vraiment l&rsquo;utiliser.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Ceci, bien qu&rsquo;int\u00e9ressant, rencontre des difficult\u00e9s juridiques, financi\u00e8res et techniques.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Th\u00e8me 2. Intelligence artificielle<\/span><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.1. Parmi les concepts suivant lequel n&rsquo;est pas un domaine li\u00e9 \u00e0 l&rsquo;intelligence artificielle?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les r\u00e9seaux de neurones<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les r\u00e9seaux de Markov<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">La logique floue<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les heuristiques<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 2 &#8211; Les r\u00e9seaux de Markov<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Les \u00ab\u00a0r\u00e9seaux de Markov\u00a0\u00bb n&rsquo;existent pas. Il y a n\u00e9anmoins un concept math\u00e9matique dit de <strong>cha\u00eene de Markov<\/strong> qui peut en effet \u00eatre utilis\u00e9 dans l&rsquo;intelligence artificielle.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">La <strong>logique floue<\/strong> ( \u00ab\u00a0<em>Fuzzy Logic<\/em>\u00a0\u00bb ) est un sous-domaine de l&rsquo;intelligence artificielle qui vise \u00e0 r\u00e9soudre les probl\u00e8mes o\u00f9 le raisonnement humain correspondant est bas\u00e9 sur des valeurs vagues et non sur des valeurs num\u00e9riques. L&rsquo;exemple de base est l&rsquo;automatisation de la temp\u00e9rature d&rsquo;un bain: Si l&rsquo;eau est \u00ab\u00a0froide\u00a0\u00bb, ouvrez \u00ab\u00a0plus\u00a0\u00bb le robinet d&rsquo;eau chaude, si l&rsquo;eau est \u00ab\u00a0chaude\u00a0\u00bb, fermez-le \u00ab\u00a0un peu\u00a0\u00bb.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les <strong>heuristiques<\/strong> sont des estimations imparfaites de la progression vers un objectif sp\u00e9cifique et sont utilis\u00e9es pour r\u00e9soudre des probl\u00e8mes tr\u00e8s complexes. Ceux d&rsquo;entre vous qui ont lu mon pr\u00e9c\u00e9dent article sur l&rsquo;AI et les jeux vid\u00e9o le savent.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Et tout le monde sait que les <strong>r\u00e9seaux de neurones artificiels<\/strong> sont le concept \u00absexy\u00bb de la saison pour l&rsquo;intelligence artificielle. On en reparle tout de suite.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.2. Comment un r\u00e9seau de neurones artificiel fonctionne t&rsquo;il ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Il reproduit exactement la fa\u00e7on dont un cerveau humain fonctionne.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Il divise les probl\u00e8mes en plusieurs sous-probl\u00e8mes (couches) afin de les r\u00e9soudre progressivement.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Il reconna\u00eet des similitudes de situations et trouve des solutions adapt\u00e9es \u00e0 des groupes de situations.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Nous ne savons pas vraiment.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 &#8211; Nous ne savons pas vraiment<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"And that is the beauty and the biggest problem of it !\">Et c&rsquo;est bien toute sa beaut\u00e9 et son plus gros probl\u00e8me! <\/span><span title=\"We don't need to for them to work but we cannot really optimize them without. \">Nous n&rsquo;avons pas besoin de savoir pour les utiliser, mais nous ne pouvons pas vraiment les optimiser faute de fondements th\u00e9oriques suffisants.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"In fact it is probable some kind of a mix between 1 2 and 3. \">En fait, il est probable que la bonne r\u00e9ponse soit une sorte de m\u00e9lange entre les r\u00e9ponses 1 2 et 3.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"Neural networks are somehow designed with similarities with the human brain, but up to a point.\">Les r\u00e9seaux de neurones <strong>sont con\u00e7us de mani\u00e8re similaire au cerveau humain, mais ceci jusqu&rsquo;\u00e0 un certain point<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"They are designed with large numbers of interconnected &quot;neurons&quot;, and the connections between them are tuned with existing data in order to best fit inputs with expected outputs.\">Ils sont con\u00e7us avec un grand nombre de \u00ab\u00a0neurones\u00a0\u00bb interconnect\u00e9s, et les connexions entre eux sont modul\u00e9es avec les donn\u00e9es existantes afin de r\u00e9gler au mieux les entr\u00e9es aux sorties attendues. <\/span><span title=\"However human brain have a lot more neurons layers... \">Cependant, le cerveau humain pr\u00e9sente de grandes diff\u00e9rences. Il a beaucoup plus de couches de neurones par exemple&#8230;<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"The classical application example is image recognition.\"><strong>L&rsquo;exemple d&rsquo;application classique est la reconnaissance d&rsquo;image<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"When you give a cat image to a neural network it will only have (like you) as inputs the colors of the various part (pixels) of the image.\">Lorsque vous donnez une image de chat \u00e0 un r\u00e9seau de neurones, il n&rsquo;aura (comme vous) que les couleurs des diff\u00e9rentes parties (pixels) de l&rsquo;image. <\/span><span title=\"But with sufficient experience ( examples ) it will be able to slowly recognize patterns, or specific colors, or shapes, that have a greater probability to be found in cat images. \">Mais avec une exp\u00e9rience suffisante (exemples), il sera capable de reconna\u00eetre lentement les motifs, ou les couleurs sp\u00e9cifiques, ou les formes, qui ont la plus grande probabilit\u00e9 d&rsquo;\u00eatre trouv\u00e9s dans les images de chats.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"The way they find the &quot;right solution&quot; is unclear mathematically speaking but they do work.\">La fa\u00e7on dont ils trouvent la \u00abbonne solution\u00bb n&rsquo;est pas claire math\u00e9matiquement parlant, mais ils fonctionnent. <\/span><span title=\"This is however a huge limitation to the optimization of neural networks.\"><strong>Ceci est cependant une \u00e9norme limitation \u00e0 l&rsquo;optimisation des r\u00e9seaux de neurones<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"The lacks of theoretical understanding of it makes it very hard.\">Le manque de compr\u00e9hension th\u00e9orique rend cette optimisation tr\u00e8s difficile. <\/span><span title=\"For example, we don't really know the best number of neurons and\/or neuron's layers to use.\">Par exemple, nous ne connaissons pas vraiment le meilleur nombre de neurones et \/ ou de couches de neurones \u00e0 utiliser. Tout cela reste \u00e0 ce jour tr\u00e8s <\/span><span title=\"This is very empirical right now. \">empirique.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"If you want to learn more on the subject you really should watch this amazing tutorial video about neural networks.\">Si vous voulez en savoir plus sur le sujet, je vous conseille de regarder ce <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=aircAruvnKk&amp;t=991s\">tutoriel vid\u00e9o tr\u00e8s clair sur les r\u00e9seaux de neurones.<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.3. Parmi les \u00e9l\u00e9ments suivants, lequel n&rsquo;est pas indispensable \u00e0 l&rsquo;apprentissage d&rsquo;un r\u00e9seau de neurone ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une grande puissance de calcul<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une quantit\u00e9 tr\u00e8s importante de donn\u00e9es<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une intervention humaine pour concevoir le r\u00e9seau<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une intervention humaine pour cat\u00e9goriser les donn\u00e9es<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 &#8211; Une intervention humaine pour cat\u00e9goriser les donn\u00e9es.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Les r\u00e9seaux de neurones ont toujours besoin, pour apprendre, d&rsquo;une grande puissance de calcul, d&rsquo;une \u00e9norme quantit\u00e9 de donn\u00e9es provenant du monde r\u00e9el et bien s\u00fbr d&rsquo;humains particuli\u00e8rement intelligents pour faire fonctionner le tout. Ceci car chaque r\u00e9seau doit \u00eatre sp\u00e9cifiquement con\u00e7u et r\u00e9gl\u00e9 avant m\u00eame l&rsquo;apprentissage.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Ce dont ils n&rsquo;ont pas toujours besoin, c&rsquo;est d&rsquo;une contribution humaine au cours de l&rsquo;apprentissage.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">E<span class=\"\">n effet,<\/span><\/span><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\"> certains r\u00e9seaux de neurones artificiels \u00ab\u00a0apprennent\u00a0\u00bb au cours de ce que l&rsquo;on appelle un <strong>\u00abapprentissage non supervis\u00e9\u00bb<\/strong>.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Ce qui signifie que l&rsquo;ordinateur apprend sans nous, sans la moindre information sur le r\u00e9sultat qu&rsquo;on souhaite le voir atteindre..<\/span>.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Pour revenir \u00e0 l&rsquo;exemple de l&rsquo;image du chat: vous pouvez \u00ab\u00a0donner\u00a0\u00bb au r\u00e9seau de neurones un grand nombre d&rsquo;images et lui dire sur lesquelles il y a un chat.<\/span> Cela fonctionnera, et c&rsquo;est ce qu&rsquo;on appelle l&rsquo;apprentissage \u00absupervis\u00e9\u00bb.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Mais vous pouvez aussi simplement donner les images sans dire sur lesquelle<\/span><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">s il y a un chat.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Le r\u00e9seau va quand m\u00eame pouvoir regrouper parmi elles les images pr\u00e9sentant des similitudes, des \u00ab\u00a0clusters\u00a0\u00bb.<\/span> <span class=\"\">En somme le r\u00e9seau va progressivement reconnaitre les images qui ont la plus grande probabilit\u00e9 de contenir un sujet similaire, et ainsi reconna\u00eetre les chats sans pour autand savoir qu&rsquo;ils sont des \u00abchats\u00bb.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.4. Parmi les domaines suivants, lesquels sont sujets \u00e0 des applications par les r\u00e9seaux de neurones ?<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Le \u00ab\u00a0big data\u00a0\u00bb<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">L&rsquo;agro-alimentaire<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Le droit<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">La m\u00e9decine<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 1 2 3 et 4 &#8211; Tous&#8230;<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cependant, l&rsquo;\u00e9tendue et l&rsquo;avanc\u00e9e de leur utilisation varie bien s\u00fbr beaucoup entre eux.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>\u00ab\u00a0<em>big data<\/em>\u00ab\u00a0<\/strong>. L&rsquo;exploration de donn\u00e9es, dite \u00ab\u00a0<em>data-mining\u00a0\u00bb<\/em>, est le processus consistant \u00e0 trouver des informations utiles cach\u00e9es dans un \u00e9norme amas de donn\u00e9es. La classification non supervis\u00e9e par les r\u00e9seaux neuronaux, et donc ses capacit\u00e9s de \u00abregroupement\u00bb, est dans ce cas tr\u00e8s utile. Attention ! la formule <em>\u00ab\u00a0data-mining\u00a0\u00bb<\/em> peut \u00e9galement repr\u00e9senter une grave erreur statistique. Lisez <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/pulse\/insidious-threat-data-mining-bias-matthias-knab\/\">ceci<\/a> pour plus d&rsquo;information \u00e0 ce sujet.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Agro-alimentaire<\/strong>. La cr\u00e9ation de \u00abnez\u00bb num\u00e9riques capables de reconna\u00eetre les odeurs par l&rsquo;interm\u00e9diaire de r\u00e9seaux neuronaux pourrait permettre aux fabricants de produits alimentaires de mieux contr\u00f4ler la qualit\u00e9 et de d\u00e9tecter plus syst\u00e9matiquement les anomalies.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><strong>Le droit<\/strong>. Des projets consistants \u00e0 utiliser les r\u00e9seaux de neurone dans l&rsquo;\u00e9valuation automatique des clause des contrats sont en cours par exemple. Cependant, dans le domaine du droit, les applications restent limit\u00e9es, pour le moment, \u00e0 des t\u00e2ches tr\u00e8s standardis\u00e9es. Les avocats ont encore du temps devant eux avant de fermer boutique.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>La M\u00e9decine<\/strong>. <span class=\"\">Vrai, en particulier dans le domaine de la pr\u00e9diction et du diagnostic des cancers.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Th\u00e8me 3. Ordinateurs quantiques<\/span><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.1. Parmi les organisations suivantes, laquelle ne travaille pas actuellement sur la conception d&rsquo;ordinateurs quantiques ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">NSA<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">D-Wave<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">IBM<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Cyberdyne Systems<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 ( un point suppl\u00e9mentaire si vous avez rep\u00e9r\u00e9 la <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skynet_(Terminator)\">r\u00e9f\u00e9rence cin\u00e9matographique\u00a0<\/a>! )<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dwavesys.com\/home\">D-Wave<\/a> <span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">est une vraie entreprise d\u00e9di\u00e9e \u00e0 conception d&rsquo;ordinateurs quantiques. IBM et Google m\u00e8nent \u00e9galement des recherches, tout comme la NSA. Et il y a d&rsquo;autres acteurs bien sur. <strong>Les \u00ab\u00a0ordinateurs quantiques\u00a0\u00bb existants sont encore des prototypes<\/strong> \u00e0 la fois imposants, peu puissants, bourr\u00e9s de probl\u00e8mes non r\u00e9solus et loin d&rsquo;\u00eatres utilisables par le commun des mortels, mais ils existent.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.2. En quoi les ordinateurs quantiques sont-ils suppos\u00e9s surpasser les ordinateurs traditionnels ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils devraient pouvoir effectuer les calculs de base beaucoup plus rapidement.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils devraient utiliser beaucoup moins d&rsquo;\u00e9nergie pour cela.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils devraient traiter certains probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques plus efficacement.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils seront beaucoup plus beaux.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 3 &#8211; Ils devraient traiter certains probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques beaucoup plus rapidement.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">En r\u00e9alit\u00e9, la r\u00e9ponse 1 est compl\u00e8tement fausse ! <strong>Les ordinateurs quantiques purs seraient m\u00eame mauvais<\/strong> (lents et peu surs) <strong>pour r\u00e9soudre les calculs de base<\/strong> (genre 1 + 1). Les ordinateurs traditionnels resteraient utiles pour cela.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Mais ils devraient \u00eatre extr\u00eamement adapt\u00e9s \u00e0 la r\u00e9solution de certains probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques tr\u00e8s sp\u00e9cifiques.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>L\u00e0 o\u00f9 ils sont cens\u00e9s exceller, ce sont les \u00ab\u00a0probl\u00e8mes d&rsquo;optimisation\u00a0\u00bb<\/strong>. La puissance de calcul n\u00e9cessaire \u00e0 r\u00e9soudre ses probl\u00e8mes augmente en effet exponentiellement avec la complexit\u00e9 de ceux-ci, rendant l&rsquo;utilisation d&rsquo;ordinateurs traditionnels vite limit\u00e9e. Hors la <strong>puissance de calcul des ordinateurs quantique augmente \u00e9galement exponentiellement avec leur taille<\/strong>, d&rsquo;o\u00f9 l&rsquo;int\u00e9r\u00eat.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">C&rsquo;est pourquoi les ordinateurs quantiques seront probablement des \u00abordinateurs hybrides\u00bb, ce qui signifie qu&rsquo;ils auront une partie informatique traditionnelle et partie quantique, et ils utiliseront le meilleur des deux syst\u00e8mes.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.3. En quoi les ordinateurs quantiques pourraient-ils repr\u00e9senter une menace pour la s\u00e9curit\u00e9 sur internet ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Leur puissance de calcul leur permettrait de rendre obsol\u00e8tes certains algorithmes par pur calcul de toutes les combinaisons.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Ils pourraient \u00eatre capables de \u00abcasser\u00bb certains algorithmes li\u00e9s \u00e0 la s\u00e9curit\u00e9.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Ils permettraient la cr\u00e9ation d&rsquo;algorithmes incassables.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Ils rendraient possible la t\u00e9l\u00e9portation!<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"R\u00e9ponse 2 - They could be able to &quot;crack&quot; certain security related algorithms \"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 2 &#8211; Ils pourraient \u00eatre capables de \u00ab\u00a0casser\u00a0\u00bb certains algorithmes li\u00e9s \u00e0 la s\u00e9curit\u00e9<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"Internet security algorithms ( the &quot;functions&quot; that are for example turning your password into something very very complex, like the SHA256 algorithm ) are created by maths problems that are not solvable with current computers.\">Les algorithmes \u00e0 la base de la s\u00e9curit\u00e9 sur internet (les \u00ab\u00a0fonctions\u00a0\u00bb qui par exemple transforment votre mot de passe en quelque chose de tr\u00e8s tr\u00e8s complexe, comme l&rsquo;algorithme SHA256) sont cr\u00e9\u00e9s par des<strong> probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques qui ne peuvent \u00eatre r\u00e9solus facilement avec les ordinateurs actuels<\/strong> (probl\u00e8me d&rsquo;optimisation&#8230;). <\/span><span title=\"This means that the only way to &quot;crack&quot; them is to try all possibilities and see if it works.\">Cela signifie que le seul moyen de les \u00ab\u00a0casser\u00a0\u00bb est d&rsquo;essayer toutes les possibilit\u00e9s et de voir si cela fonctionne. <\/span><span title=\"This is called &quot;brute force&quot;.\">C&rsquo;est ce qu&rsquo;on appelle \u00ab\u00a0force brute\u00a0\u00bb. <\/span><span title=\"And it does not work when dealing with sufficiently long passwords. \">Et cela ne fonctionne pas avec des mots de passe suffisamment longs.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"But, due to the way quantum computers are &quot;supposed&quot; to work they might be able to find the solutions to those specific problems, thus reducing considerably the time needed to crack those codes, making them possibly useless. \">Mais, de part la fa\u00e7on dont les ordinateurs quantiques sont \u00ab\u00a0suppos\u00e9s\u00a0\u00bb fonctionner, ils pourraient <strong>trouver bien plus facilement les solutions \u00e0 certains de ces probl\u00e8mes sp\u00e9cifiques,<\/strong> r\u00e9duisant ainsi consid\u00e9rablement le temps n\u00e9cessaire pour d\u00e9chiffrer ces codes, les rendant potentiellement inutiles.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"This is no surprise that the NSA decided to launch a quantum computer project... \">Ce n&rsquo;est donc pas une surprise que la <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/national-security\/nsa-seeks-to-build-quantum-computer-that-could-crack-most-types-of-encryption\/2014\/01\/02\/8fff297e-7195-11e3-8def-a33011492df2_story.html?Post%20generic=%3Ftid%3Dsm_twitter_washingtonpost&amp;noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.89ebc91fbcf1\">NSA ait d\u00e9cid\u00e9 de lancer un projet de recherche autour de l&rsquo;ordinateur quantique<\/a> &#8230;<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"But don't worry too much either because this is like the weapons vs armor problem, and people are already working on quantum-proof security algorithms. \">Mais ne vous inqui\u00e9tez pas trop non plus. En effet, c&rsquo;est un peu l&rsquo;\u00e9ternelle course entre l&rsquo;arme et l&rsquo;armure, et de nombreuses personnes travaillent d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur des <strong>algorithmes de s\u00e9curit\u00e9 qui pourraient r\u00e9sister \u00e0 cette nouvelle technologie<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"( answer 4 is actually not that stupid as there do exits a &quot;quantum teleportation effect&quot; ! See here )\">(Enfin la r\u00e9ponse 4 n&rsquo;est en fait pas aussi stupide qu&rsquo;elle en a l&rsquo;air car il existe bien un effet dit de \u00ab\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_teleportation\">t\u00e9l\u00e9portation quantique<\/a>\u00ab\u00a0! )<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.4. Parmi les probl\u00e8mes suivants (parmi beaucoup d&rsquo;autres), lequel <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">n&rsquo;est pas<\/span> un probl\u00e8me r\u00e9el rencontr\u00e9 dans la conception d&rsquo;ordinateurs quantiques ?<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">R\u00e9ussir \u00e0 maintenir la coh\u00e9rence quantique (l&rsquo;\u00e9tat quantique permettant d&rsquo;utiliser l&rsquo;ordinateur) assez longtemps.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Augmenter le nombre de qubits (\u00e9l\u00e9ments fondamentaux de l&rsquo;ordinateur quantique) \u00e0 un niveau rendant l&rsquo;ordinateur utile.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cr\u00e9er des qubits qui sont assez petits pour tenir dans quelque chose de plus petit qu&rsquo;un entrep\u00f4t industriel.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Trouver un moyen fiable de d\u00e9tecter et corriger les erreurs de traitement de l&rsquo;ordinateur quantique.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\n<div class=\"sp-wrap sp-wrap-green\">\n<div class=\"sp-head\" title=\"Expand\">\nR\u00e9ponse...\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sp-body folded\">\n<p><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 3 &#8211; Cr\u00e9er des qubits suffisamment petits.<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"Current designed &quot;qubits&quot; are obviously very small no problem with them.\">Les \u00abqubits\u00bb con\u00e7us actuellement sont \u00e9videmment tr\u00e8s petits et ne posent aucun probl\u00e8me de taille&#8230; \u00e0 eux seuls. <\/span><span title=\"But the whole computers are still very very big indeed, and might need some miniaturization.\">Mais les ordinateurs entiers sont encore tr\u00e8s tr\u00e8s imposants, et une miniaturisation est n\u00e9cessaire. <\/span><span title=\"But there are way more urgent problems to solve before that, among which are : \">Mais la r\u00e9alit\u00e9 est qu&rsquo;il y a des probl\u00e8mes beaucoup plus urgents \u00e0 r\u00e9soudre avant cela, parmi lesquels:<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"1 - Maintaining quantum coherence long enough is indeed a real problem.\">1 &#8211; <strong>Maintenir assez longtemps la coh\u00e9rence quantique<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"Without it, no computation is possible.\">Sans cela, aucun calcul n&rsquo;est possible. <\/span><span title=\"Materials ans designs of qubits is far from standardized, but for now maintaining coherence (the &quot;state&quot; of the computer in which it does have a usable quantum behavior) often imply cooling the qubits down to near absolute zero and isolating them from any source of\">Les mat\u00e9riaux et la conception des qubits sont loin d&rsquo;\u00eatre standardis\u00e9s, mais pour le moment maintenir la coh\u00e9rence (\u00ab\u00a0l&rsquo;\u00e9tat\u00a0\u00bb de l&rsquo;ordinateur dans lequel il a un comportement quantique utilisable) implique souvent de refroidir les qubits jusqu&rsquo;au quasi z\u00e9ro absolu et de les isoler de toute source possible de <\/span><span title=\"de-coherence.\">d\u00e9-coh\u00e9rence. Ce n&rsquo;est p<\/span><span title=\"Not something you will be able to do in your laptop soon... \">as quelque chose que vous serez capable de faire dans votre ordinateur portable avant longtemps&#8230;<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"2 - The REAL advantage of quantum computing is in its ability to exponentially scale its computing power with the number of qubits.\">2 &#8211; L&rsquo;avantage r\u00e9el de l&rsquo;informatique quantique r\u00e9side dans sa capacit\u00e9 \u00e0 augmenter de fa\u00e7on exponentielle sa puissance de calcul avec le nombre de ses qubits. <\/span><span title=\"Under a certain number of them (around 50, but this is very uncertain actually) there is no point in it, traditional computers will always be better, whatever the computation.\">Sous un certain nombre d&rsquo;entre eux (environ 50, mais ce chiffre est tr\u00e8s incertain ) \u00e7a ne sert \u00e0 rien, les ordinateurs traditionnels seront meilleurs, quel que soit le calcul. <\/span><span title=\"This number is called the &quot;quantum supremacy point&quot;.\">Ce nombre s&rsquo;appelle le \u00ab\u00a0<strong>point de supr\u00e9matie quantique<\/strong>\u00ab\u00a0. <\/span><span title=\"Unfortunately linking numerous qubits is very far from been easy. \">Malheureusement lier de nombreux qubits entre eux est tr\u00e8s loin d&rsquo;\u00eatre une t\u00e2che facile.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"4 - This will also need a lot of very smart thinking.\">4 &#8211;<strong> D\u00e9tecter et traiter les erreurs. <\/strong><\/span><span title=\"IBM among others work a lot on this specific problem.\">IBM, entre autres, travaille beaucoup sur ce probl\u00e8me sp\u00e9cifique. <\/span><span title=\"Normal bits are subject to physical errors ( oups it is a 0 and it should be a 1) but corrections are mastered.\">Les bits normaux sont sujets \u00e0 des erreurs physiques (\u00ab\u00a0oups c&rsquo;est un 0 et il devrait y avoir un 1\u00a0\u00bb) mais les corrections sont ma\u00eetris\u00e9es. <\/span><span title=\"Qubits are very subject to errors do to their fragile quantum state.\">Les qubits sont fortement sujets aux erreurs du fait de leur fragile \u00e9tat quantique. <\/span><span title=\"A single temperature fluctuation can incur important variations that are not planned.\">Une seule fluctuation de temp\u00e9rature peut entra\u00eener des variations importantes qui ne sont pas planifi\u00e9es. Rep\u00e9rer <\/span><span title=\"Spotting and correcting errors is very needed to construct a reliable quantum computer. \">et corriger les erreurs est donc absolument n\u00e9cessaire pour construire un ordinateur quantique fiable.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"Conclusion for this question : don't worry too much about quantum computers, they are not ready yet.\">Conclusion g\u00e9n\u00e9rale pour cette question et cette partie : ne vous inqui\u00e9tez pas trop concernant les ordinateurs quantiques, <strong>ils ne sont pas encore pr\u00eats ! <\/strong>Mais continuer de vous informer&#8230;<strong><br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"spdiv\">[collapse]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">J&rsquo;esp\u00e8re que vous avez bien r\u00e9ussi, mais j&rsquo;esp\u00e8re surtout que vous avez appris deux trois choses et que cela vous a permis de vous pencher un peu plus sur ces sujets, ce qui \u00e9tait le but premier de tout cela.<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Pour ceux d&rsquo;entre vous qui poss\u00e8de de meilleures connaissances que moi sur ces sujets (et vous \u00eates nombreux !), veuillez corriger les erreurs que j&rsquo;ai pu commettre dans les commentaires.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Je serai bien s\u00fbr ravi d&rsquo;apprendre et de mettre \u00e0 jour cet article !<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false,"raw":"<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-522 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/spring-break-tech-quiz\">Read this post in english<\/a><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"Summer is coming up.\">L'\u00e9t\u00e9 arrive. <\/span><span title=\"It is about time to check what you really know about the techs that &quot;might&quot; replace you during your vacations. \">C'est le bon moment pour v\u00e9rifier l'\u00e9tat de vos connaissances sur les technologies qui pourraient bien vous remplacer pendant vos vacances.<\/span><\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"I hear about &quot;technology&quot; all the time.\">J'entends parler de \u00abtechnologie\u00bb tout le temps. Les<\/span><span title=\"All finance professionals around me seems to be very excited about it, and eager to take full advantage of it, or at the opposite, scared it might eventually make their job irrelevant. \"> professionnels de la finance qui m'entourent en particulier, semblent soit tr\u00e8s enthousiastes \u00e0 ce sujet, soit, au contraire, franchement effray\u00e9s quant \u00e0 la p\u00e9rennit\u00e9 de leur emploi.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"But when I scrape just a little bit under the surface, for both of them, I realize that most of them often don't really know much about it. \">Mais quand je gratte juste un peu sous la surface, pour chacun d'eux, je r\u00e9alise que <strong>nombre d'entre eux ne savent pas grand chose sur ces sujets<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"I don't know much about it either.\">Soyons honn\u00eate, <strong>je n'en sais pas beaucoup non plus.<\/strong> C<\/span><span title=\"And this is why I constantly read and watch on various tech subjects in order keep up.\">'est pourquoi je lis et m'informe constamment sur ces sujets afin de me maintenir la t\u00eate hors de l'eau. <\/span><span title=\"This is hard and time consuming but I do think it is unavoidable, and that everyone should do it. \">C'est difficile et consomme un temps fou, mais c'est incontournable.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"So here is a quick and modest ( I do not pretend to be an expert in those subjects ) little quiz that will check your &quot;basic&quot; knowledge about the 3 main &quot;hot techs&quot; of this spring in service driven industries : crypto &amp; blockchain,\">Voici donc un petit quiz qui v\u00e9rifiera vos connaissances \"de base\" sur les trois \"hot technologies\" du moment : <strong>crypto &amp; blockchain, <\/strong><\/span><strong><span title=\"artificial intelligence and quantum computers. \">intelligence artificielle et ordinateurs quantiques.<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"It won't cover much, it won't give you every information you need.\">Il ne couvrira pas beaucoup, il ne vous donnera pas toutes les informations dont vous avez besoin. <\/span><span title=\"But I do hope you will find it interesting, and that it will help you get interested and further pursue a better understanding of those subjects and the various myths that surround them! \">Mais j'esp\u00e8re que vous le trouverez int\u00e9ressant, et que cela vous aidera et vous motivera pour poursuivre vers une meilleure compr\u00e9hension de ces sujets et des divers mythes qui les entourent!<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"Oh and don't be scared about the first question !\">Oh, et ne prenez pas peur d\u00e8s la premi\u00e8re question! <\/span><span title=\"Every bit of explanation is in the answers...\">Elle peut faire un peu <\/span><span title=\"Every bit of explanation is in the answers...\">peur... mais rassurez vous tout est expliqu\u00e9 dans les r\u00e9ponses !\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><!--more--><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Th\u00e8me 1. Blockchain &amp; Crypto<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.1. L'algorithme sur lequel repose le bitcoin est : <\/strong><strong>\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Un algorithme de cryptage sym\u00e9trique\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Un algorithme de cryptage asym\u00e9trique<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Un algorithme de hachage (<em>hashing<\/em>)\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Mais de quoi vous parlez ?<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 3 - Un algorithme de hachage\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"A hashing algorithm is a function that transforms a simple text into a very complex one of a fixed length.\">Un algorithme de hachage est une fonction qui transforme un texte simple et quelconque en un texte tr\u00e8s complexe et d'une longueur fixe. <\/span><span title=\"The main idea is that while it is impossible to find the starting text (usually a password or a file) from the ending text, the same starting text will always be transformed into the same ending one.\">L'id\u00e9e principale est que s'il est impossible de trouver le texte de d\u00e9part (g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement un mot de passe ou un fichier) \u00e0 partir du texte final, le m\u00eame texte de d\u00e9part sera toujours transform\u00e9 dans le m\u00eame texte final. <\/span><span title=\"This allows to store your passwords securely (kind of... just hashing them is not enough actually) by keeping just the &quot;hashed&quot; version of it.\">Ceci permet de stocker vos mots de passe en toute s\u00e9curit\u00e9 (plus ou moins... ce n'est pas suffisant en r\u00e9alit\u00e9) en gardant juste la version \"hach\u00e9e\" de celui-ci. <\/span><span title=\"When you type your password later, the website just have to hash it again and check that it match what they have. \">Lorsque vous tapez votre mot de passe plus tard, le site Web n'a alors qu'\u00e0 le hacher \u00e0 nouveau et v\u00e9rifier que cela correspond \u00e0 ce qu'il a. <strong>Il peut v\u00e9rifier un mot de passe sans le poss\u00e9der.<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"One other very important characteristic of a hashing algorithm is its &quot;avalanche effect&quot; which means that a very small change in the input should change the ouput entirely.\">Une autre caract\u00e9ristique tr\u00e8s importante d'un algorithme de hachage est son <strong>\"effet d'avalanche\"<\/strong>, ce qui signifie qu'un tr\u00e8s petit changement dans l'entr\u00e9e devrait compl\u00e8tement changer la sortie. <\/span><span title=\"If you want to try this out in reality just go here ! \">Si vous voulez essayer cela en r\u00e9alit\u00e9, vous pouvez <a href=\"https:\/\/passwordsgenerator.net\/sha256-hash-generator\/\">essayer ici<\/a>, c'est tr\u00e8s intuitif !<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"The bitcoin blockchain is constructed on the SHA-256 hashing algorithm ( SHA for Secure Hashing Algorithm).\">La <em>blockchain<\/em> bitcoin est construite sur l'<strong>algorithme de hachage SHA-256<\/strong> (SHA pour <em>Secure Hashing Algorithm<\/em>). <\/span><span title=\"Bitcoin miners are actually trying all day to find &quot;passwords&quot; whose hash start with a certain number of zeros in order to &quot;sign&quot; new blocks.\">Les mineurs de Bitcoin essayent en fait toute la journ\u00e9e de trouver des \"mots de passe\" dont la version hach\u00e9e commence par un certain nombre de z\u00e9ros, ceci afin de \"signer\" de nouveaux blocs de transactions.\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.2. A quel point cet algorithme est-il s\u00fbr ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Assez s\u00fbr, l'algorithme SHA256 pourrait \u00eatre \"craqu\u00e9\" en 1 an par mon ordinateur.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Tr\u00e8s <span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">s\u00fbr<\/span>, il faudrait 10 ans.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Pas de probl\u00e8me, il faudrait plus de 1.000 ans.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">C'est tellement s\u00fbr qu'il est difficile de l'exprimer.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 !<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Une excellente illustration de ceci peut \u00eatre trouv\u00e9e dans cette <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=S9JGmA5_unY\">amusante vid\u00e9o<\/a>, regardez-la.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Attention, ceci signifie que l'algorithme est <strong>incroyablement s\u00e9curis\u00e9... face aux attaques par force brute<\/strong> (c'est \u00e0 dire \"allez j'essaye toutes les combinaisons une \u00e0 une\")<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>MAIS il pourrait ne pas rester s\u00e9curis\u00e9 \u00e0 l'avenir<\/strong>. C'est vraiment une question de puissance de calcul. <span class=\"\">L'algorithme est s\u00e9curis\u00e9 pour le moment, mais les ordinateurs seront plus rapides et efficaces dans le futur (voire en particulier la partie sur les ordinateurs quantiques), et cela pourrait ne pas rester vrai.<\/span> De plus, il est r\u00e9ellement s\u00e9curis\u00e9 pour des entr\u00e9es longues et complexes, et pas du tout pour les entr\u00e9es simples \/ courtes, car des nombreux hash simples sont pr\u00e9calcul\u00e9s et disponibles facilement... alors <strong>gardez vos mots de passe tr\u00e8s longs, comme on vous l'a d\u00e9j\u00e0 dit!<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.3. Quel est le <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">moindre<\/span> des probl\u00e8mes de la blockchain ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Son principe de livre publique et distribu\u00e9 des transactions implique une faible confidentialit\u00e9.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Elle est con\u00e7ue pour utiliser une puissance de calcul de plus en plus grande, et \u00e9norm\u00e9ment d'\u00e9nergie.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Elle peut \u00eatre un peu lente.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Elle utilise un algorithme de consensus et est donc th\u00e9oriquement sujet \u00e0 des attaques de consensus.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 1 - <span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"> une faible confidentialit\u00e9<\/span>\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"Actually it is quite the opposite.\">En fait, c'est tout le contraire. <\/span><span title=\"The strong confidentiality of the cryptocurrencies blockchains, makes it harder for governments to trace illegal activities and especially money laundering schemes.\">La forte confidentialit\u00e9 (chaque participant \u00e0 un identifiant anonyme) des crypto-monnaies fait qu'<strong>il est plus difficile pour les gouvernements de retracer les activit\u00e9s ill\u00e9gales<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"It is still possible to trace bitcoins and matching money outflows, but is makes it a lot harder (kind of an anonymous Swiss bank account if you want an old shool comparison). \">Il est encore possible de tracer des bitcoins et les sorties d'argent r\u00e9el correspondantes, mais cela rend la surveillance beaucoup plus difficile ( un peu comme le fameux compte num\u00e9rot\u00e9 en Suisse de la grande \u00e9poque ).<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"2 is very true, and problematic, especially for bitcoin where the total electric power needed to &quot;mine&quot; (finding the &quot;passwords&quot; that have the required hash ) has gone crazy.\">2 est tr\u00e8s vrai, et probl\u00e9matique, en particulier pour bitcoin o\u00f9 <strong>la puissance \u00e9lectrique totale n\u00e9cessaire pour \"miner\"<\/strong> (trouver les \"mots de passe\" qui ont le hash requis) <strong>est devenue folle<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"This is a grave ecological issue.\">C'est un grave probl\u00e8me \u00e9cologique. <\/span><span title=\"And the way the blockchain is designed can only make it worse in the future. \">Et la fa\u00e7on dont la blockchain est con\u00e7ue ne peut qu'aggraver ce probl\u00e8me \u00e0 l'avenir.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"3 is true especially for large blockchains where there is miner congestion.\">3 est vrai et en particulier pour les grandes \"blockchain\" o\u00f9 il y a une congestion mini\u00e8re (les mineurs n'arrivent plus \u00e0 traiter toutes les transactions assez rapidement). <\/span><span title=\"For example a bitcoin transaction can be processed from a few minutes to a few days... which is very very slow compared to the current speed of financial transactions that can happen numerous time within a second. \">Par exemple <strong>une transaction bitcoin peut \u00eatre trait\u00e9e entre quelques minutes et quelques jours<\/strong> selon le volume de transactions... ce qui est tr\u00e8s tr\u00e8s lent par rapport \u00e0 la vitesse actuelle des transactions financi\u00e8res traditionelles.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"4 is theoretically true, and a real concern.\">4 est th\u00e9oriquement vrai, et une r\u00e9elle pr\u00e9occupation. <\/span><span title=\"As blockchain are not &quot;owned&quot; by anyone but their participants, it is possible for a very large group representing more than a large part all participants to conduct attacks by simply changing the rules of the blockchain.\">Etant donn\u00e9 que les <em>blockchains<\/em> ne sont \"poss\u00e9d\u00e9s\" par personne d'autre que leurs participants, il est possible qu'un groupe d'entre eux, repr\u00e9sentant plus qu'une grande partie de tous les participants, <strong>m\u00e8ne des attaques en changeant simplement les r\u00e8gles de la blockchain<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"While this is highly improbable for large blockchains like bitcoin, it is more problematic for other smaller chains, mainly owned by their creators.\">Bien que cela soit hautement improbable pour les grandes <em>blockchains<\/em> comme le Bitcoin, c'est plus probl\u00e9matique pour les autres petites cha\u00eenes, principalement d\u00e9tenues par leurs cr\u00e9ateurs. Garre aux petites ICO !!!\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.4.\u00a0 Une application potentielle int\u00e9ressante des <em>blockchain<\/em> est la possibilit\u00e9 de cr\u00e9er des march\u00e9s financiers d\u00e9centralis\u00e9s. Quels avantages cela apporterait-il ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cela r\u00e9duirait le co\u00fbt de l'investissement.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cela donnerait plus de contr\u00f4le sur les donn\u00e9es financi\u00e8res.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cela aiderait \u00e0 stabiliser le syst\u00e8me financier gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 une meilleure d\u00e9termination du cours des actions.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Cela pourrait permettre un financement plus direct des projets d'entreprise.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Tout cela sauf le 3 !\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Bien que l'avantage 3 (meilleure d\u00e9couverte de prix) n'est pas \u00e0 priori faux, il n'y a absolument aucune preuve de cela, et \"la d\u00e9couverte du prix\" est en fait d\u00e9j\u00e0 tr\u00e8s bonne sur les march\u00e9s actuels.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Le principal avantage des \u00abmarch\u00e9s financiers <em>blockchain<\/em>\u00bb est qu'<strong>ils ne seraient plus li\u00e9s \u00e0 des interm\u00e9diaires couteux<\/strong>: pas de banques d\u00e9tenant des titres, pas de courtiers, pas de soci\u00e9t\u00e9s de change, pas de chambres de compensation ... Cela signifie que les points 1 et 2 seraient particuli\u00e8rement vrais.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Les co\u00fbts associ\u00e9s \u00e0 l'investissement diminueraient fortement et tout le monde aurait le contr\u00f4le sur toutes ses donn\u00e9es financi\u00e8res, les banques, en particulier, ne pourraient plus conserver les donn\u00e9es de leurs clients comme elles le font actuellement.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">4. est vrai aussi mais pas encore vraiment impl\u00e9ment\u00e9.<\/span> En cr\u00e9ant une <em>blockchain<\/em> d'actions ou d'obligations, <strong>les entreprises pourraient lever des capitaux diff\u00e9remment et potentiellement plus efficacement<\/strong>. <span class=\"\">Mais ce n'est pas si facile et pour l'instant m\u00eame les \"crowdlender\" n'ont pas encore r\u00e9ussi \u00e0 vraiment l'utiliser.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Ceci, bien qu'int\u00e9ressant, rencontre des difficult\u00e9s juridiques, financi\u00e8res et techniques.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Th\u00e8me 2. Intelligence artificielle<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.1. Parmi les concepts suivant lequel n'est pas un domaine li\u00e9 \u00e0 l'intelligence artificielle?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les r\u00e9seaux de neurones\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les r\u00e9seaux de Markov\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">La logique floue\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les heuristiques<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 2 - Les r\u00e9seaux de Markov\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Les \"r\u00e9seaux de Markov\" n'existent pas. Il y a n\u00e9anmoins un concept math\u00e9matique dit de <strong>cha\u00eene de Markov<\/strong> qui peut en effet \u00eatre utilis\u00e9 dans l'intelligence artificielle.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">La <strong>logique floue<\/strong> ( \"<em>Fuzzy Logic<\/em>\" ) est un sous-domaine de l'intelligence artificielle qui vise \u00e0 r\u00e9soudre les probl\u00e8mes o\u00f9 le raisonnement humain correspondant est bas\u00e9 sur des valeurs vagues et non sur des valeurs num\u00e9riques. L'exemple de base est l'automatisation de la temp\u00e9rature d'un bain: Si l'eau est \"froide\", ouvrez \"plus\" le robinet d'eau chaude, si l'eau est \"chaude\", fermez-le \"un peu\".<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les <strong>heuristiques<\/strong> sont des estimations imparfaites de la progression vers un objectif sp\u00e9cifique et sont utilis\u00e9es pour r\u00e9soudre des probl\u00e8mes tr\u00e8s complexes. Ceux d'entre vous qui ont lu mon pr\u00e9c\u00e9dent article sur l'AI et les jeux vid\u00e9o le savent.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Et tout le monde sait que les <strong>r\u00e9seaux de neurones artificiels<\/strong> sont le concept \u00absexy\u00bb de la saison pour l'intelligence artificielle. On en reparle tout de suite.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.2. Comment un r\u00e9seau de neurones artificiel fonctionne t'il ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Il reproduit exactement la fa\u00e7on dont un cerveau humain fonctionne.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Il divise les probl\u00e8mes en plusieurs sous-probl\u00e8mes (couches) afin de les r\u00e9soudre progressivement.\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Il reconna\u00eet des similitudes de situations et trouve des solutions adapt\u00e9es \u00e0 des groupes de situations.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Nous ne savons pas vraiment.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 - Nous ne savons pas vraiment<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"And that is the beauty and the biggest problem of it !\">Et c'est bien toute sa beaut\u00e9 et son plus gros probl\u00e8me! <\/span><span title=\"We don't need to for them to work but we cannot really optimize them without. \">Nous n'avons pas besoin de savoir pour les utiliser, mais nous ne pouvons pas vraiment les optimiser faute de fondements th\u00e9oriques suffisants.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"In fact it is probable some kind of a mix between 1 2 and 3. \">En fait, il est probable que la bonne r\u00e9ponse soit une sorte de m\u00e9lange entre les r\u00e9ponses 1 2 et 3.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"Neural networks are somehow designed with similarities with the human brain, but up to a point.\">Les r\u00e9seaux de neurones <strong>sont con\u00e7us de mani\u00e8re similaire au cerveau humain, mais ceci jusqu'\u00e0 un certain point<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"They are designed with large numbers of interconnected &quot;neurons&quot;, and the connections between them are tuned with existing data in order to best fit inputs with expected outputs.\">Ils sont con\u00e7us avec un grand nombre de \"neurones\" interconnect\u00e9s, et les connexions entre eux sont modul\u00e9es avec les donn\u00e9es existantes afin de r\u00e9gler au mieux les entr\u00e9es aux sorties attendues. <\/span><span title=\"However human brain have a lot more neurons layers... \">Cependant, le cerveau humain pr\u00e9sente de grandes diff\u00e9rences. Il a beaucoup plus de couches de neurones par exemple...<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"The classical application example is image recognition.\"><strong>L'exemple d'application classique est la reconnaissance d'image<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"When you give a cat image to a neural network it will only have (like you) as inputs the colors of the various part (pixels) of the image.\">Lorsque vous donnez une image de chat \u00e0 un r\u00e9seau de neurones, il n'aura (comme vous) que les couleurs des diff\u00e9rentes parties (pixels) de l'image. <\/span><span title=\"But with sufficient experience ( examples ) it will be able to slowly recognize patterns, or specific colors, or shapes, that have a greater probability to be found in cat images. \">Mais avec une exp\u00e9rience suffisante (exemples), il sera capable de reconna\u00eetre lentement les motifs, ou les couleurs sp\u00e9cifiques, ou les formes, qui ont la plus grande probabilit\u00e9 d'\u00eatre trouv\u00e9s dans les images de chats.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"The way they find the &quot;right solution&quot; is unclear mathematically speaking but they do work.\">La fa\u00e7on dont ils trouvent la \u00abbonne solution\u00bb n'est pas claire math\u00e9matiquement parlant, mais ils fonctionnent. <\/span><span title=\"This is however a huge limitation to the optimization of neural networks.\"><strong>Ceci est cependant une \u00e9norme limitation \u00e0 l'optimisation des r\u00e9seaux de neurones<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"The lacks of theoretical understanding of it makes it very hard.\">Le manque de compr\u00e9hension th\u00e9orique rend cette optimisation tr\u00e8s difficile. <\/span><span title=\"For example, we don't really know the best number of neurons and\/or neuron's layers to use.\">Par exemple, nous ne connaissons pas vraiment le meilleur nombre de neurones et \/ ou de couches de neurones \u00e0 utiliser. Tout cela reste \u00e0 ce jour tr\u00e8s <\/span><span title=\"This is very empirical right now. \">empirique.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"If you want to learn more on the subject you really should watch this amazing tutorial video about neural networks.\">Si vous voulez en savoir plus sur le sujet, je vous conseille de regarder ce <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=aircAruvnKk&amp;t=991s\">tutoriel vid\u00e9o tr\u00e8s clair sur les r\u00e9seaux de neurones.<\/a><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.3. Parmi les \u00e9l\u00e9ments suivants, lequel n'est pas indispensable \u00e0 l'apprentissage d'un r\u00e9seau de neurone ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une grande puissance de calcul<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une quantit\u00e9 tr\u00e8s importante de donn\u00e9es\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une intervention humaine pour concevoir le r\u00e9seau<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une intervention humaine pour cat\u00e9goriser les donn\u00e9es\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 - Une intervention humaine pour cat\u00e9goriser les donn\u00e9es.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Les r\u00e9seaux de neurones ont toujours besoin, pour apprendre, d'une grande puissance de calcul, d'une \u00e9norme quantit\u00e9 de donn\u00e9es provenant du monde r\u00e9el et bien s\u00fbr d'humains particuli\u00e8rement intelligents pour faire fonctionner le tout. Ceci car chaque r\u00e9seau doit \u00eatre sp\u00e9cifiquement con\u00e7u et r\u00e9gl\u00e9 avant m\u00eame l'apprentissage.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Ce dont ils n'ont pas toujours besoin, c'est d'une contribution humaine au cours de l'apprentissage.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">E<span class=\"\">n effet,<\/span><\/span><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\"> certains r\u00e9seaux de neurones artificiels \"apprennent\" au cours de ce que l'on appelle un <strong>\u00abapprentissage non supervis\u00e9\u00bb<\/strong>.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Ce qui signifie que l'ordinateur apprend sans nous, sans la moindre information sur le r\u00e9sultat qu'on souhaite le voir atteindre..<\/span>.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Pour revenir \u00e0 l'exemple de l'image du chat: vous pouvez \"donner\" au r\u00e9seau de neurones un grand nombre d'images et lui dire sur lesquelles il y a un chat.<\/span> Cela fonctionnera, et c'est ce qu'on appelle l'apprentissage \u00absupervis\u00e9\u00bb.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Mais vous pouvez aussi simplement donner les images sans dire sur lesquelle<\/span><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">s il y a un chat.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Le r\u00e9seau va quand m\u00eame pouvoir regrouper parmi elles les images pr\u00e9sentant des similitudes, des \"clusters\".<\/span> <span class=\"\">En somme le r\u00e9seau va progressivement reconnaitre les images qui ont la plus grande probabilit\u00e9 de contenir un sujet similaire, et ainsi reconna\u00eetre les chats sans pour autand savoir qu'ils sont des \u00abchats\u00bb.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.4. Parmi les domaines suivants, lesquels sont sujets \u00e0 des applications par les r\u00e9seaux de neurones ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Le \"big data\"\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">L'agro-alimentaire<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Le droit<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">La m\u00e9decine<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 1 2 3 et 4 - Tous...<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cependant, l'\u00e9tendue et l'avanc\u00e9e de leur utilisation varie bien s\u00fbr beaucoup entre eux.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>\"<em>big data<\/em>\"<\/strong>. L'exploration de donn\u00e9es, dite \"<em>data-mining\"<\/em>, est le processus consistant \u00e0 trouver des informations utiles cach\u00e9es dans un \u00e9norme amas de donn\u00e9es. La classification non supervis\u00e9e par les r\u00e9seaux neuronaux, et donc ses capacit\u00e9s de \u00abregroupement\u00bb, est dans ce cas tr\u00e8s utile. Attention ! la formule <em>\"data-mining\"<\/em> peut \u00e9galement repr\u00e9senter une grave erreur statistique. Lisez <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/pulse\/insidious-threat-data-mining-bias-matthias-knab\/\">ceci<\/a> pour plus d'information \u00e0 ce sujet.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Agro-alimentaire<\/strong>. La cr\u00e9ation de \u00abnez\u00bb num\u00e9riques capables de reconna\u00eetre les odeurs par l'interm\u00e9diaire de r\u00e9seaux neuronaux pourrait permettre aux fabricants de produits alimentaires de mieux contr\u00f4ler la qualit\u00e9 et de d\u00e9tecter plus syst\u00e9matiquement les anomalies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><strong>Le droit<\/strong>. Des projets consistants \u00e0 utiliser les r\u00e9seaux de neurone dans l'\u00e9valuation automatique des clause des contrats sont en cours par exemple. Cependant, dans le domaine du droit, les applications restent limit\u00e9es, pour le moment, \u00e0 des t\u00e2ches tr\u00e8s standardis\u00e9es. Les avocats ont encore du temps devant eux avant de fermer boutique.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>La M\u00e9decine<\/strong>. <span class=\"\">Vrai, en particulier dans le domaine de la pr\u00e9diction et du diagnostic des cancers.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Th\u00e8me 3. Ordinateurs quantiques<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.1. Parmi les organisations suivantes, laquelle ne travaille pas actuellement sur la conception d'ordinateurs quantiques ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">NSA<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">D-Wave<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">IBM<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Cyberdyne Systems<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 ( un point suppl\u00e9mentaire si vous avez rep\u00e9r\u00e9 la <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skynet_(Terminator)\">r\u00e9f\u00e9rence cin\u00e9matographique\u00a0<\/a>! )<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dwavesys.com\/home\">D-Wave<\/a> <span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">est une vraie entreprise d\u00e9di\u00e9e \u00e0 conception d'ordinateurs quantiques. IBM et Google m\u00e8nent \u00e9galement des recherches, tout comme la NSA. Et il y a d'autres acteurs bien sur. <strong>Les \"ordinateurs quantiques\" existants sont encore des prototypes<\/strong> \u00e0 la fois imposants, peu puissants, bourr\u00e9s de probl\u00e8mes non r\u00e9solus et loin d'\u00eatres utilisables par le commun des mortels, mais ils existent.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.2. En quoi les ordinateurs quantiques sont-ils suppos\u00e9s surpasser les ordinateurs traditionnels ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils devraient pouvoir effectuer les calculs de base beaucoup plus rapidement.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils devraient utiliser beaucoup moins d'\u00e9nergie pour cela.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils devraient traiter certains probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques plus efficacement.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils seront beaucoup plus beaux.\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 3 - Ils devraient traiter certains probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques beaucoup plus rapidement.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">En r\u00e9alit\u00e9, la r\u00e9ponse 1 est compl\u00e8tement fausse ! <strong>Les ordinateurs quantiques purs seraient m\u00eame mauvais<\/strong> (lents et peu surs) <strong>pour r\u00e9soudre les calculs de base<\/strong> (genre 1 + 1). Les ordinateurs traditionnels resteraient utiles pour cela.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Mais ils devraient \u00eatre extr\u00eamement adapt\u00e9s \u00e0 la r\u00e9solution de certains probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques tr\u00e8s sp\u00e9cifiques.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>L\u00e0 o\u00f9 ils sont cens\u00e9s exceller, ce sont les \"probl\u00e8mes d'optimisation\"<\/strong>. La puissance de calcul n\u00e9cessaire \u00e0 r\u00e9soudre ses probl\u00e8mes augmente en effet exponentiellement avec la complexit\u00e9 de ceux-ci, rendant l'utilisation d'ordinateurs traditionnels vite limit\u00e9e. Hors la <strong>puissance de calcul des ordinateurs quantique augmente \u00e9galement exponentiellement avec leur taille<\/strong>, d'o\u00f9 l'int\u00e9r\u00eat.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">C'est pourquoi les ordinateurs quantiques seront probablement des \u00abordinateurs hybrides\u00bb, ce qui signifie qu'ils auront une partie informatique traditionnelle et partie quantique, et ils utiliseront le meilleur des deux syst\u00e8mes.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.3. En quoi les ordinateurs quantiques pourraient-ils repr\u00e9senter une menace pour la s\u00e9curit\u00e9 sur internet ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Leur puissance de calcul leur permettrait de rendre obsol\u00e8tes certains algorithmes par pur calcul de toutes les combinaisons.\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Ils pourraient \u00eatre capables de \u00abcasser\u00bb certains algorithmes li\u00e9s \u00e0 la s\u00e9curit\u00e9.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Ils permettraient la cr\u00e9ation d'algorithmes incassables.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Ils rendraient possible la t\u00e9l\u00e9portation!<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"R\u00e9ponse 2 - They could be able to &quot;crack&quot; certain security related algorithms \"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 2 - Ils pourraient \u00eatre capables de \"casser\" certains algorithmes li\u00e9s \u00e0 la s\u00e9curit\u00e9<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"Internet security algorithms ( the &quot;functions&quot; that are for example turning your password into something very very complex, like the SHA256 algorithm ) are created by maths problems that are not solvable with current computers.\">Les algorithmes \u00e0 la base de la s\u00e9curit\u00e9 sur internet (les \"fonctions\" qui par exemple transforment votre mot de passe en quelque chose de tr\u00e8s tr\u00e8s complexe, comme l'algorithme SHA256) sont cr\u00e9\u00e9s par des<strong> probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques qui ne peuvent \u00eatre r\u00e9solus facilement avec les ordinateurs actuels<\/strong> (probl\u00e8me d'optimisation...). <\/span><span title=\"This means that the only way to &quot;crack&quot; them is to try all possibilities and see if it works.\">Cela signifie que le seul moyen de les \"casser\" est d'essayer toutes les possibilit\u00e9s et de voir si cela fonctionne. <\/span><span title=\"This is called &quot;brute force&quot;.\">C'est ce qu'on appelle \"force brute\". <\/span><span title=\"And it does not work when dealing with sufficiently long passwords. \">Et cela ne fonctionne pas avec des mots de passe suffisamment longs.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"But, due to the way quantum computers are &quot;supposed&quot; to work they might be able to find the solutions to those specific problems, thus reducing considerably the time needed to crack those codes, making them possibly useless. \">Mais, de part la fa\u00e7on dont les ordinateurs quantiques sont \"suppos\u00e9s\" fonctionner, ils pourraient <strong>trouver bien plus facilement les solutions \u00e0 certains de ces probl\u00e8mes sp\u00e9cifiques,<\/strong> r\u00e9duisant ainsi consid\u00e9rablement le temps n\u00e9cessaire pour d\u00e9chiffrer ces codes, les rendant potentiellement inutiles.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"This is no surprise that the NSA decided to launch a quantum computer project... \">Ce n'est donc pas une surprise que la <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/national-security\/nsa-seeks-to-build-quantum-computer-that-could-crack-most-types-of-encryption\/2014\/01\/02\/8fff297e-7195-11e3-8def-a33011492df2_story.html?Post%20generic=%3Ftid%3Dsm_twitter_washingtonpost&amp;noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.89ebc91fbcf1\">NSA ait d\u00e9cid\u00e9 de lancer un projet de recherche autour de l'ordinateur quantique<\/a> ...<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"But don't worry too much either because this is like the weapons vs armor problem, and people are already working on quantum-proof security algorithms. \">Mais ne vous inqui\u00e9tez pas trop non plus. En effet, c'est un peu l'\u00e9ternelle course entre l'arme et l'armure, et de nombreuses personnes travaillent d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur des <strong>algorithmes de s\u00e9curit\u00e9 qui pourraient r\u00e9sister \u00e0 cette nouvelle technologie<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"( answer 4 is actually not that stupid as there do exits a &quot;quantum teleportation effect&quot; ! See here )\">(Enfin la r\u00e9ponse 4 n'est en fait pas aussi stupide qu'elle en a l'air car il existe bien un effet dit de \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_teleportation\">t\u00e9l\u00e9portation quantique<\/a>\"! )<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.4. Parmi les probl\u00e8mes suivants (parmi beaucoup d'autres), lequel <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">n'est pas<\/span> un probl\u00e8me r\u00e9el rencontr\u00e9 dans la conception d'ordinateurs quantiques ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">R\u00e9ussir \u00e0 maintenir la coh\u00e9rence quantique (l'\u00e9tat quantique permettant d'utiliser l'ordinateur) assez longtemps.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Augmenter le nombre de qubits (\u00e9l\u00e9ments fondamentaux de l'ordinateur quantique) \u00e0 un niveau rendant l'ordinateur utile.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cr\u00e9er des qubits qui sont assez petits pour tenir dans quelque chose de plus petit qu'un entrep\u00f4t industriel.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Trouver un moyen fiable de d\u00e9tecter et corriger les erreurs de traitement de l'ordinateur quantique.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 3 - Cr\u00e9er des qubits suffisamment petits.\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"Current designed &quot;qubits&quot; are obviously very small no problem with them.\">Les \u00abqubits\u00bb con\u00e7us actuellement sont \u00e9videmment tr\u00e8s petits et ne posent aucun probl\u00e8me de taille... \u00e0 eux seuls. <\/span><span title=\"But the whole computers are still very very big indeed, and might need some miniaturization.\">Mais les ordinateurs entiers sont encore tr\u00e8s tr\u00e8s imposants, et une miniaturisation est n\u00e9cessaire. <\/span><span title=\"But there are way more urgent problems to solve before that, among which are : \">Mais la r\u00e9alit\u00e9 est qu'il y a des probl\u00e8mes beaucoup plus urgents \u00e0 r\u00e9soudre avant cela, parmi lesquels:<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"1 - Maintaining quantum coherence long enough is indeed a real problem.\">1 - <strong>Maintenir assez longtemps la coh\u00e9rence quantique<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"Without it, no computation is possible.\">Sans cela, aucun calcul n'est possible. <\/span><span title=\"Materials ans designs of qubits is far from standardized, but for now maintaining coherence (the &quot;state&quot; of the computer in which it does have a usable quantum behavior) often imply cooling the qubits down to near absolute zero and isolating them from any source of\">Les mat\u00e9riaux et la conception des qubits sont loin d'\u00eatre standardis\u00e9s, mais pour le moment maintenir la coh\u00e9rence (\"l'\u00e9tat\" de l'ordinateur dans lequel il a un comportement quantique utilisable) implique souvent de refroidir les qubits jusqu'au quasi z\u00e9ro absolu et de les isoler de toute source possible de <\/span><span title=\"de-coherence.\">d\u00e9-coh\u00e9rence. Ce n'est p<\/span><span title=\"Not something you will be able to do in your laptop soon... \">as quelque chose que vous serez capable de faire dans votre ordinateur portable avant longtemps...<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"2 - The REAL advantage of quantum computing is in its ability to exponentially scale its computing power with the number of qubits.\">2 - L'avantage r\u00e9el de l'informatique quantique r\u00e9side dans sa capacit\u00e9 \u00e0 augmenter de fa\u00e7on exponentielle sa puissance de calcul avec le nombre de ses qubits. <\/span><span title=\"Under a certain number of them (around 50, but this is very uncertain actually) there is no point in it, traditional computers will always be better, whatever the computation.\">Sous un certain nombre d'entre eux (environ 50, mais ce chiffre est tr\u00e8s incertain ) \u00e7a ne sert \u00e0 rien, les ordinateurs traditionnels seront meilleurs, quel que soit le calcul. <\/span><span title=\"This number is called the &quot;quantum supremacy point&quot;.\">Ce nombre s'appelle le \"<strong>point de supr\u00e9matie quantique<\/strong>\". <\/span><span title=\"Unfortunately linking numerous qubits is very far from been easy. \">Malheureusement lier de nombreux qubits entre eux est tr\u00e8s loin d'\u00eatre une t\u00e2che facile.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"4 - This will also need a lot of very smart thinking.\">4 -<strong> D\u00e9tecter et traiter les erreurs. <\/strong><\/span><span title=\"IBM among others work a lot on this specific problem.\">IBM, entre autres, travaille beaucoup sur ce probl\u00e8me sp\u00e9cifique. <\/span><span title=\"Normal bits are subject to physical errors ( oups it is a 0 and it should be a 1) but corrections are mastered.\">Les bits normaux sont sujets \u00e0 des erreurs physiques (\"oups c'est un 0 et il devrait y avoir un 1\") mais les corrections sont ma\u00eetris\u00e9es. <\/span><span title=\"Qubits are very subject to errors do to their fragile quantum state.\">Les qubits sont fortement sujets aux erreurs du fait de leur fragile \u00e9tat quantique. <\/span><span title=\"A single temperature fluctuation can incur important variations that are not planned.\">Une seule fluctuation de temp\u00e9rature peut entra\u00eener des variations importantes qui ne sont pas planifi\u00e9es. Rep\u00e9rer <\/span><span title=\"Spotting and correcting errors is very needed to construct a reliable quantum computer. \">et corriger les erreurs est donc absolument n\u00e9cessaire pour construire un ordinateur quantique fiable.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"Conclusion for this question : don't worry too much about quantum computers, they are not ready yet.\">Conclusion g\u00e9n\u00e9rale pour cette question et cette partie : ne vous inqui\u00e9tez pas trop concernant les ordinateurs quantiques, <strong>ils ne sont pas encore pr\u00eats ! <\/strong>Mais continuer de vous informer...<strong>\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">J'esp\u00e8re que vous avez bien r\u00e9ussi, mais j'esp\u00e8re surtout que vous avez appris deux trois choses et que cela vous a permis de vous pencher un peu plus sur ces sujets, ce qui \u00e9tait le but premier de tout cela.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Pour ceux d'entre vous qui poss\u00e8de de meilleures connaissances que moi sur ces sujets (et vous \u00eates nombreux !), veuillez corriger les erreurs que j'ai pu commettre dans les commentaires.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Je serai bien s\u00fbr ravi d'apprendre et de mettre \u00e0 jour cet article !<\/span><\/span><\/p>"},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false,"raw":""},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"_en_post_content":"<img class=\"aligncenter size-medium wp-image-522\" src=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/quizz-tech-estival\"><span style=\"font-size: 10pt;\">Lire cet article en fran\u00e7ais<\/span><\/a>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Summer is coming up. It is about time to check what you really know about the techs that \"might\" replace you during your vacations.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">I hear about \"technology\" all the time. All finance professionals around me seems to be very excited about it, and eager to take full advantage of it, or at the opposite, scared it might eventually make their job irrelevant.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">But when I scrape just a little bit under the surface, for both of them, I realize that most of them often don't really know much about it.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>I don't know much about it either<\/strong>. And this is why I constantly read and watch on various tech subjects in order keep up. This is hard and time consuming but I do think it is unavoidable, and that everyone should do it.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">So here is a quick and modest ( I do not pretend to be an expert in those subjects ) little quiz that will check your \"basic\" knowledge about the 3 main \"hot techs\" of this spring in service driven industries : <strong>crypto &amp; blockchain, artificial intelligence and quantum computers<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It won't cover much, it won't give you every information you need. But I do hope you will find it interesting, and that it will help you get interested and further pursue a better understanding of those subjects and the various myths that surround them!\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Oh and don't be scared about the first question ! Every bit of explanation is in the answers...\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><!--more--><\/span>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Theme 1. Blockchain &amp; Crypto<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.1. The algorithm at the very base of the bitcoin blockchain is a<\/strong><strong> ...\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Symmetrical encryption algorithm<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Asymmetrical encryption algorithm<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Hashing algorithm<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">What the hell are you talking about ?<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Answer 3 - Hashing algorithm<\/strong>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A <strong>hashing algorithm is a function that transforms a simple text into a very complex one of a fixed length<\/strong>. The main idea is that while it is impossible to find the starting text (usually a password or a file) from the ending text, the same starting text will always be transformed into the same ending one. This allows to store your passwords securely (kind of... just hashing them is not enough actually) by keeping just the \"hashed\" version of it. When you type your password later, the website just have to hash it again and check that it match what they have.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">One other very important characteristic of a hashing algorithm is its \"avalanche effect\" which means that<strong> a very small change in the input should change the ouput entirely<\/strong>. If you want to try this out in reality just go <a href=\"https:\/\/passwordsgenerator.net\/sha256-hash-generator\/\">here<\/a> !\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The bitcoin blockchain is constructed on the SHA-256 hashing algorithm ( SHA for <em>Secure Hashing Algorithm<\/em>). Bitcoin miners are actually trying all day to find \"passwords\" whose hash start with a certain number of zeros in order to \"sign\" new blocks.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.2. How secure is this algorithm right now ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Quite secure, the SHA256 algorithm could be cracked in 1 year by my computer.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Very secure, it would take 10 years.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">No problem it would take more than 1.000 years.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">This is so secure it is hard to express it.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Answer 4 !<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The total number of possible combination of the SHA-256 algorithm is 2 power 256... which means it is NOT possible to just try all possibilities. <strong>It is A LOT of possibilities<\/strong>...\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A very good explanation of this can be found in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=S9JGmA5_unY\">this great video<\/a>, watch it.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">So the algorithm is<strong> incredibly secure... to brute force attacks.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>BUT it might not stay secure in the future.<\/strong> This is really a matter of computing power. The algorithm is secure for now, but shall the computers be faster in the future this might not stay true. Moreover, it is actually secure for long and complex inputs, and not at all for simple\/short inputs... so <strong>keep your passwords very long<\/strong> as you where told already !<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.3. Which one of those is <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">the lesser<\/span> of blockchain problems ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Its distributed ledger principle implies weak confidentiality of transactions.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It is designed to use larger and larger computation power, and therefore energy.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It can be kind of slow.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It uses a consensus algorithm and therefore is theoretically subject to consensus attacks.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Answer 1 - weak confidentiality of transactions\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Actually it is quite the opposite. The strong confidentiality of the cryptocurrencies blockchains, makes it <strong>harder for governments to trace illegal activities and especially money laundering schemes.<\/strong> It is still possible to trace bitcoins and matching money outflows, but is makes it a lot harder (kind of an anonymous Swiss bank account if you want an old shool comparison).\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">2 is very true, and problematic, especially for bitcoin where the total electric power needed to \"mine\" (finding the \"passwords\" that have the required hash ) has gone crazy. <strong>This is a grave ecological issue<\/strong>. And the way the blockchain is designed can only make it worse in the future.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">3 is true especially for large blockchains where there is miner congestion. For example a <strong>bitcoin transaction can be processed from a few minutes to a few days<\/strong>... which is very very slow compared to the current speed of financial transactions that can happen numerous time within a second.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">4 is theoretically true, and a real concern. As blockchain are not \"owned\" by anyone but their participants, it is possible for a very large group representing more than a large part all participants to <strong>conduct attacks by simply changing the rules of the blockchain<\/strong>. While this is highly improbable for large blockchains like bitcoin, it is more problematic for other smaller chains, mainly owned by their creators.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.4.\u00a0 One interesting potential application for blockchain is decentralized financial markets. Which of the following advantages would it grant ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It would reduce the cost of investing.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It would give more control over one's financial data.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It would help stabilize the financial system through better equity price discovery.\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It could allow more direct financing of venture projects.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>All but 3\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">While 3 ( better price discovery) is not proven false, <strong>there is absolutely no evidence of it<\/strong>, and \"price discovery is actually already pretty good in current markets.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The <strong>main advantage of \"blockchain financial markets\" is that their would be no intermediaries<\/strong> : no banks holding securities, no brokers, no exchange companies, no clearing houses... This means that 1 and 2 would be very true. The costs associated with investing would go down and everyone would have control over all of its financial data, banks for instance won't be able to retain data as they do now.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">4. is true too but not really implemented yet. By creating a blockchain of equity shares or bonds, <strong>companies could raise capital differently and potentially more efficiently<\/strong>. But this is not that easy and as for now even crowdlenders still haven't really managed to use it. This, while interesting, do meet legal, financial and technical difficulties.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Theme 2. Artificial Intelligence<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.1. Which of the following<\/strong><strong> is <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">not<\/span> a sub-domain of artificial intelligence?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Neural networks<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Markov's networks<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Fuzzy Logic<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Heuristics<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Answer 2 - Markov's networks\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>There is no such thing as the \"Markov's networks\"<\/strong>.\u00a0 There is a however a Markov's <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">chain<\/span> mathematical concept that can be\u00a0 used in AI.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\">Fuzzy logic<\/a> is a sub-domain of AI which aims at <strong>handling problem where human reasoning is based on vague values and not numerical value.<\/strong>\u00a0 The base example is the bath temperature automatization one : If the water is \"cold\" open \"more\" the hot tub, is it is \"hot\" close it \"a little\".<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Heuristics are <strong>imperfect estimations of the progress toward a specific goal<\/strong> and are used in solving very complex problems. Those of you how read <a href=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/artificial-intelligence-what-a-game-can-teach-us\">my previous post about AI and video games<\/a> know it. <\/span><\/p>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">And everyone of course knows that <strong>neural networks<\/strong> are the season's \"hot\" concept for AI.<\/span>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.2. How does an artificial neural network work ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It reproduce exactly the way a human brain works.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It splits problems into multiple sub-problems (layers) in order to solve them.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">It recognize patterns of situations and find solutions fitting them.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">We don't really know.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Answer 4 - We don't really know\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">And that is the beauty and the biggest problem of it ! We don't need to for them to work but we cannot really optimize them without.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">In fact it is probable some kind of a mix between 1 2 and 3.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Neural networks are somehow designed with similarities with the human brain, but up to a point. They are designed with large numbers of\u00a0 interconnected \"neurons\", and the connections between them are tuned with existing data in order to best fit inputs with expected outputs. <strong>However human brain have a lot more neurons layers<\/strong>...\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The classical application <strong>example is image recognition<\/strong>. When you give a cat image to a neural network it will only have (like you) as inputs the colors of the various part (pixels) of the image. But with sufficient experience ( examples ) it will be able to slowly recognize patterns, or specific colors, or shapes, that have a greater probability to be found in cat images.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>The way they find the \"right solution\" is unclear mathematically<\/strong> speaking but they do work. This is however a huge limitation to the optimization of neural networks. The lacks of theoretical understanding of it makes it very hard. For example, we don't really know the best number of neurons and\/or\u00a0 neuron's layers to use. This is very empirical right now.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">If you want to learn more on the subject you really should watch this amazing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=aircAruvnKk&amp;t=991s\">tutorial video about neural networks<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.3. What is <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">not<\/span> always needed for a neural network to learn ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Computing power<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Real-world data<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Human input\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Smart people<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Answer 3 - Human input\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Neural networks do always need, in order to learn, a lot of computing power, a lot of real world data and of course very smart people to make it happen.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>What they do not always need is human input.<\/strong> This is because some neural networks are actually improved through what is called \"unsupervised learning\". Which means the computer learns without us... scary...<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">To get back to the cat image example : you can \"give\" the neural network a lot of pictures and tell it on which one there is a cat. It will work, and this is called \"supervised\" learning.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">But you can also just give it the pictures with no label on it. It will allow the network to spot groups of pictures with similarities, \"clusters\". It might then be able to recognize cats without knowing that they are \"cats\".<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.4. Which one of the following fields is <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">not<\/span> currently subject to neural network applications ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Data-mining\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Food processing\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Law<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Medecine<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>All of them<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Answer 5 - All of them...<\/strong>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">However the extent of its use do vary a lot between them.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">1 is true. Data-mining is the process of finding meaningful information inside a enormous set of data (often correlations). Neural networks classification or \"clustering\" capabilities allows them to do so. Warning ! data-mining can also be a statistical error. Read <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/pulse\/insidious-threat-data-mining-bias-matthias-knab\/\">this<\/a> to be informed on the subject.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">2 is true. The creation of digital \"noses\" that can recognize odors though neural networks allows food manufacturers to better control quality and detect anomalies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">3 - Is also true. Robots are now tested on automatic contracts evaluation for example. However this is still limited to very standardized tasks. Lawyers still have some time.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">4 is true. Especially in fields like cancer risk prediction and diagnosis.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Theme 3. Quantum computing<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.1. Which one(s) of the following organization is <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">not<\/span> conducting research and design on real world quantum computers\u00a0 ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">NSA<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">D-Wave<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">IBM<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Cyberdyne Systems<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Answer 4 ( obviously... and gain a bonus point for the movie <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skynet_(Terminator)\">reference<\/a> ! )<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dwavesys.com\/home\">D-Wave<\/a> is indeed a real company designing quantum computers. IBM and Google are also conducting research, and there are more of them. <strong>Those \"computers\" are still very expensive prototypes right now but they do exist.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>There are still a very long way from being available to the public<\/strong> or even to help replace you though.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.2. How could quantum computers theoretically surpass traditional computers ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">They should process basic computations a lot faster.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">They should use a lot less energy to do so.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">They should process some mathematical problems more efficiently.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">They will look better.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Answer 3 - They should process some mathematical problems more efficiently.<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Actually answer 1 is really wrong ! Pure quantum computers would be extremely bad at solving basic computations.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">But they should be extremely good at some very specific maths problems.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>What they are supposed to be good at is \"optimization problems\",<\/strong> a very narrow subset of mathematical problems, because their computation power will increase exponentially with their size, which is not the case with traditional computers.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"> That is why quantum computers will probably be \"hybrid computers\", which means they will have a traditional computing part and a quantum one, trying to use the best of both.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.3. Why could quantum computers be a potential threat to internet security ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Their computation power would allow them to \"brute force\" encryption algorithms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">They could be able to \"crack\" certain security related algorithms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">They would allow the creation of unbreakable algorithms.\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">They would allow teleportation.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Answer 2 - They could be able to \"crack\" certain security related algorithms<\/strong>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Internet security algorithms ( the \"functions\" that are for example turning your password into something very very complex, like the SHA256 algorithm ) are created by maths problems that are not solvable with current computers. This means that the only way to \"crack\" them is to try all possibilities and see if it works. This is called \"brute force\". And it does not work when dealing with sufficiently long passwords.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">But, due to the way quantum computers are \"supposed\" to work they might be able to find the solutions to those specific problems, <strong>thus reducing considerably the time needed to crack those codes, making them possibly useless<\/strong>.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">This is no surprise that the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/national-security\/nsa-seeks-to-build-quantum-computer-that-could-crack-most-types-of-encryption\/2014\/01\/02\/8fff297e-7195-11e3-8def-a33011492df2_story.html?Post%20generic=%3Ftid%3Dsm_twitter_washingtonpost&amp;noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.89ebc91fbcf1\">NSA decided to launch a quantum computer project<\/a>...<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">But don't worry too much either because this is like the weapons vs armor problem, and people are already working on quantum-proof security algorithms.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">( answer 4 is actually not that stupid as there do exits a \"quantum teleportation effect\" ! See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_teleportation\">here<\/a> )<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.4. Which of the following is <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">not<\/span> a actual problem in the practical design of quantum computers ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Maintaining quantum coherence long enough.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Physically scaling the number of qubits (quantum bits) to a useful level.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Creating qubits that are small enough to fit in something smaller than a truck.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Finding a reliable way to detect qubits errors.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='Answer...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Answer 3 - Creating qubits that are small enough<\/strong>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Well this is kind of tricky. Current designed \"qubits\" are obviously very small no problem with them. But the whole computers are still very very big indeed, and might need some miniaturization. <strong>But there are way more urgent problems to solve before that, among which are<\/strong> :<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">1 - <strong>Maintaining quantum coherence long enough<\/strong> is indeed a real problem. Without it, no computation is possible. Materials ans designs of qubits is far from standardized, but for now maintaining coherence (the \"state\" of the computer in which it does have a usable quantum behavior) often imply cooling the qubits down to near absolute zero and isolating them from any source of de-coherence. Not something you will be able to do in your laptop soon...<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">2 - The REAL advantage of quantum computing is in its ability to exponentially scale its computing power with the number of qubits. Under a certain number of them (around 50, but this is very uncertain actually) there is no point in it, traditional computers will always be better, whatever the computation. <strong>This number is called the \"quantum supremacy point\"<\/strong>. Unfortunately linking numerous qubits is very far from been easy.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">4 - This will also need a lot of very smart thinking. IBM among others work a lot on this specific problem. Normal bits are subject to physical errors ( oups it is a 0 and it should be a 1) but corrections are mastered. <strong>Qubits are very subject to errors do to their fragile quantum state<\/strong>. A single temperature fluctuation can incur important variations that are not planned. Spotting and correcting errors is very needed to construct a reliable quantum computer.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Conclusion for this question : don't worry too much about quantum computers, <strong>they are not ready yet.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">I hope you did well, and I hope that you did learn a little and got interested in those subjects, which was the very goal of this.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">For those you do have a lot more knowledge than me on those topics, please correct any errors I might have made in comments. I will gladly learn and update this post.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/p>","_en_post_name":"spring-break-tech-quiz","_en_post_excerpt":"","_en_post_title":"Spring break hot tech quiz","_fr_post_content":"<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-522 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Image11-large-1-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/spring-break-tech-quiz\">Read this post in english<\/a><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"Summer is coming up.\">L'\u00e9t\u00e9 arrive. <\/span><span title=\"It is about time to check what you really know about the techs that &quot;might&quot; replace you during your vacations. \">C'est le bon moment pour v\u00e9rifier l'\u00e9tat de vos connaissances sur les technologies qui pourraient bien vous remplacer pendant vos vacances.<\/span><\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"I hear about &quot;technology&quot; all the time.\">J'entends parler de \u00abtechnologie\u00bb tout le temps. Les<\/span><span title=\"All finance professionals around me seems to be very excited about it, and eager to take full advantage of it, or at the opposite, scared it might eventually make their job irrelevant. \"> professionnels de la finance qui m'entourent en particulier, semblent soit tr\u00e8s enthousiastes \u00e0 ce sujet, soit, au contraire, franchement effray\u00e9s quant \u00e0 la p\u00e9rennit\u00e9 de leur emploi.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"But when I scrape just a little bit under the surface, for both of them, I realize that most of them often don't really know much about it. \">Mais quand je gratte juste un peu sous la surface, pour chacun d'eux, je r\u00e9alise que <strong>nombre d'entre eux ne savent pas grand chose sur ces sujets<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"I don't know much about it either.\">Soyons honn\u00eate, <strong>je n'en sais pas beaucoup non plus.<\/strong> C<\/span><span title=\"And this is why I constantly read and watch on various tech subjects in order keep up.\">'est pourquoi je lis et m'informe constamment sur ces sujets afin de me maintenir la t\u00eate hors de l'eau. <\/span><span title=\"This is hard and time consuming but I do think it is unavoidable, and that everyone should do it. \">C'est difficile et consomme un temps fou, mais c'est incontournable.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"So here is a quick and modest ( I do not pretend to be an expert in those subjects ) little quiz that will check your &quot;basic&quot; knowledge about the 3 main &quot;hot techs&quot; of this spring in service driven industries : crypto &amp; blockchain,\">Voici donc un petit quiz qui v\u00e9rifiera vos connaissances \"de base\" sur les trois \"hot technologies\" du moment : <strong>crypto &amp; blockchain, <\/strong><\/span><strong><span title=\"artificial intelligence and quantum computers. \">intelligence artificielle et ordinateurs quantiques.<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"It won't cover much, it won't give you every information you need.\">Il ne couvrira pas beaucoup, il ne vous donnera pas toutes les informations dont vous avez besoin. <\/span><span title=\"But I do hope you will find it interesting, and that it will help you get interested and further pursue a better understanding of those subjects and the various myths that surround them! \">Mais j'esp\u00e8re que vous le trouverez int\u00e9ressant, et que cela vous aidera et vous motivera pour poursuivre vers une meilleure compr\u00e9hension de ces sujets et des divers mythes qui les entourent!<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"Oh and don't be scared about the first question !\">Oh, et ne prenez pas peur d\u00e8s la premi\u00e8re question! <\/span><span title=\"Every bit of explanation is in the answers...\">Elle peut faire un peu <\/span><span title=\"Every bit of explanation is in the answers...\">peur... mais rassurez vous tout est expliqu\u00e9 dans les r\u00e9ponses !\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><!--more--><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Th\u00e8me 1. Blockchain &amp; Crypto<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.1. L'algorithme sur lequel repose le bitcoin est : <\/strong><strong>\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Un algorithme de cryptage sym\u00e9trique\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Un algorithme de cryptage asym\u00e9trique<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Un algorithme de hachage (<em>hashing<\/em>)\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Mais de quoi vous parlez ?<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 3 - Un algorithme de hachage\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"A hashing algorithm is a function that transforms a simple text into a very complex one of a fixed length.\">Un algorithme de hachage est une fonction qui transforme un texte simple et quelconque en un texte tr\u00e8s complexe et d'une longueur fixe. <\/span><span title=\"The main idea is that while it is impossible to find the starting text (usually a password or a file) from the ending text, the same starting text will always be transformed into the same ending one.\">L'id\u00e9e principale est que s'il est impossible de trouver le texte de d\u00e9part (g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement un mot de passe ou un fichier) \u00e0 partir du texte final, le m\u00eame texte de d\u00e9part sera toujours transform\u00e9 dans le m\u00eame texte final. <\/span><span title=\"This allows to store your passwords securely (kind of... just hashing them is not enough actually) by keeping just the &quot;hashed&quot; version of it.\">Ceci permet de stocker vos mots de passe en toute s\u00e9curit\u00e9 (plus ou moins... ce n'est pas suffisant en r\u00e9alit\u00e9) en gardant juste la version \"hach\u00e9e\" de celui-ci. <\/span><span title=\"When you type your password later, the website just have to hash it again and check that it match what they have. \">Lorsque vous tapez votre mot de passe plus tard, le site Web n'a alors qu'\u00e0 le hacher \u00e0 nouveau et v\u00e9rifier que cela correspond \u00e0 ce qu'il a. <strong>Il peut v\u00e9rifier un mot de passe sans le poss\u00e9der.<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"One other very important characteristic of a hashing algorithm is its &quot;avalanche effect&quot; which means that a very small change in the input should change the ouput entirely.\">Une autre caract\u00e9ristique tr\u00e8s importante d'un algorithme de hachage est son <strong>\"effet d'avalanche\"<\/strong>, ce qui signifie qu'un tr\u00e8s petit changement dans l'entr\u00e9e devrait compl\u00e8tement changer la sortie. <\/span><span title=\"If you want to try this out in reality just go here ! \">Si vous voulez essayer cela en r\u00e9alit\u00e9, vous pouvez <a href=\"https:\/\/passwordsgenerator.net\/sha256-hash-generator\/\">essayer ici<\/a>, c'est tr\u00e8s intuitif !<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"The bitcoin blockchain is constructed on the SHA-256 hashing algorithm ( SHA for Secure Hashing Algorithm).\">La <em>blockchain<\/em> bitcoin est construite sur l'<strong>algorithme de hachage SHA-256<\/strong> (SHA pour <em>Secure Hashing Algorithm<\/em>). <\/span><span title=\"Bitcoin miners are actually trying all day to find &quot;passwords&quot; whose hash start with a certain number of zeros in order to &quot;sign&quot; new blocks.\">Les mineurs de Bitcoin essayent en fait toute la journ\u00e9e de trouver des \"mots de passe\" dont la version hach\u00e9e commence par un certain nombre de z\u00e9ros, ceci afin de \"signer\" de nouveaux blocs de transactions.\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.2. A quel point cet algorithme est-il s\u00fbr ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Assez s\u00fbr, l'algorithme SHA256 pourrait \u00eatre \"craqu\u00e9\" en 1 an par mon ordinateur.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Tr\u00e8s <span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">s\u00fbr<\/span>, il faudrait 10 ans.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Pas de probl\u00e8me, il faudrait plus de 1.000 ans.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">C'est tellement s\u00fbr qu'il est difficile de l'exprimer.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 !<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Une excellente illustration de ceci peut \u00eatre trouv\u00e9e dans cette <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=S9JGmA5_unY\">amusante vid\u00e9o<\/a>, regardez-la.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Attention, ceci signifie que l'algorithme est <strong>incroyablement s\u00e9curis\u00e9... face aux attaques par force brute<\/strong> (c'est \u00e0 dire \"allez j'essaye toutes les combinaisons une \u00e0 une\")<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>MAIS il pourrait ne pas rester s\u00e9curis\u00e9 \u00e0 l'avenir<\/strong>. C'est vraiment une question de puissance de calcul. <span class=\"\">L'algorithme est s\u00e9curis\u00e9 pour le moment, mais les ordinateurs seront plus rapides et efficaces dans le futur (voire en particulier la partie sur les ordinateurs quantiques), et cela pourrait ne pas rester vrai.<\/span> De plus, il est r\u00e9ellement s\u00e9curis\u00e9 pour des entr\u00e9es longues et complexes, et pas du tout pour les entr\u00e9es simples \/ courtes, car des nombreux hash simples sont pr\u00e9calcul\u00e9s et disponibles facilement... alors <strong>gardez vos mots de passe tr\u00e8s longs, comme on vous l'a d\u00e9j\u00e0 dit!<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.3. Quel est le <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">moindre<\/span> des probl\u00e8mes de la blockchain ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Son principe de livre publique et distribu\u00e9 des transactions implique une faible confidentialit\u00e9.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Elle est con\u00e7ue pour utiliser une puissance de calcul de plus en plus grande, et \u00e9norm\u00e9ment d'\u00e9nergie.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Elle peut \u00eatre un peu lente.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Elle utilise un algorithme de consensus et est donc th\u00e9oriquement sujet \u00e0 des attaques de consensus.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 1 - <span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"> une faible confidentialit\u00e9<\/span>\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"Actually it is quite the opposite.\">En fait, c'est tout le contraire. <\/span><span title=\"The strong confidentiality of the cryptocurrencies blockchains, makes it harder for governments to trace illegal activities and especially money laundering schemes.\">La forte confidentialit\u00e9 (chaque participant \u00e0 un identifiant anonyme) des crypto-monnaies fait qu'<strong>il est plus difficile pour les gouvernements de retracer les activit\u00e9s ill\u00e9gales<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"It is still possible to trace bitcoins and matching money outflows, but is makes it a lot harder (kind of an anonymous Swiss bank account if you want an old shool comparison). \">Il est encore possible de tracer des bitcoins et les sorties d'argent r\u00e9el correspondantes, mais cela rend la surveillance beaucoup plus difficile ( un peu comme le fameux compte num\u00e9rot\u00e9 en Suisse de la grande \u00e9poque ).<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"2 is very true, and problematic, especially for bitcoin where the total electric power needed to &quot;mine&quot; (finding the &quot;passwords&quot; that have the required hash ) has gone crazy.\">2 est tr\u00e8s vrai, et probl\u00e9matique, en particulier pour bitcoin o\u00f9 <strong>la puissance \u00e9lectrique totale n\u00e9cessaire pour \"miner\"<\/strong> (trouver les \"mots de passe\" qui ont le hash requis) <strong>est devenue folle<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"This is a grave ecological issue.\">C'est un grave probl\u00e8me \u00e9cologique. <\/span><span title=\"And the way the blockchain is designed can only make it worse in the future. \">Et la fa\u00e7on dont la blockchain est con\u00e7ue ne peut qu'aggraver ce probl\u00e8me \u00e0 l'avenir.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"3 is true especially for large blockchains where there is miner congestion.\">3 est vrai et en particulier pour les grandes \"blockchain\" o\u00f9 il y a une congestion mini\u00e8re (les mineurs n'arrivent plus \u00e0 traiter toutes les transactions assez rapidement). <\/span><span title=\"For example a bitcoin transaction can be processed from a few minutes to a few days... which is very very slow compared to the current speed of financial transactions that can happen numerous time within a second. \">Par exemple <strong>une transaction bitcoin peut \u00eatre trait\u00e9e entre quelques minutes et quelques jours<\/strong> selon le volume de transactions... ce qui est tr\u00e8s tr\u00e8s lent par rapport \u00e0 la vitesse actuelle des transactions financi\u00e8res traditionelles.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"4 is theoretically true, and a real concern.\">4 est th\u00e9oriquement vrai, et une r\u00e9elle pr\u00e9occupation. <\/span><span title=\"As blockchain are not &quot;owned&quot; by anyone but their participants, it is possible for a very large group representing more than a large part all participants to conduct attacks by simply changing the rules of the blockchain.\">Etant donn\u00e9 que les <em>blockchains<\/em> ne sont \"poss\u00e9d\u00e9s\" par personne d'autre que leurs participants, il est possible qu'un groupe d'entre eux, repr\u00e9sentant plus qu'une grande partie de tous les participants, <strong>m\u00e8ne des attaques en changeant simplement les r\u00e8gles de la blockchain<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"While this is highly improbable for large blockchains like bitcoin, it is more problematic for other smaller chains, mainly owned by their creators.\">Bien que cela soit hautement improbable pour les grandes <em>blockchains<\/em> comme le Bitcoin, c'est plus probl\u00e9matique pour les autres petites cha\u00eenes, principalement d\u00e9tenues par leurs cr\u00e9ateurs. Garre aux petites ICO !!!\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 1.4.\u00a0 Une application potentielle int\u00e9ressante des <em>blockchain<\/em> est la possibilit\u00e9 de cr\u00e9er des march\u00e9s financiers d\u00e9centralis\u00e9s. Quels avantages cela apporterait-il ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cela r\u00e9duirait le co\u00fbt de l'investissement.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cela donnerait plus de contr\u00f4le sur les donn\u00e9es financi\u00e8res.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cela aiderait \u00e0 stabiliser le syst\u00e8me financier gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 une meilleure d\u00e9termination du cours des actions.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Cela pourrait permettre un financement plus direct des projets d'entreprise.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Tout cela sauf le 3 !\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Bien que l'avantage 3 (meilleure d\u00e9couverte de prix) n'est pas \u00e0 priori faux, il n'y a absolument aucune preuve de cela, et \"la d\u00e9couverte du prix\" est en fait d\u00e9j\u00e0 tr\u00e8s bonne sur les march\u00e9s actuels.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Le principal avantage des \u00abmarch\u00e9s financiers <em>blockchain<\/em>\u00bb est qu'<strong>ils ne seraient plus li\u00e9s \u00e0 des interm\u00e9diaires couteux<\/strong>: pas de banques d\u00e9tenant des titres, pas de courtiers, pas de soci\u00e9t\u00e9s de change, pas de chambres de compensation ... Cela signifie que les points 1 et 2 seraient particuli\u00e8rement vrais.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Les co\u00fbts associ\u00e9s \u00e0 l'investissement diminueraient fortement et tout le monde aurait le contr\u00f4le sur toutes ses donn\u00e9es financi\u00e8res, les banques, en particulier, ne pourraient plus conserver les donn\u00e9es de leurs clients comme elles le font actuellement.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">4. est vrai aussi mais pas encore vraiment impl\u00e9ment\u00e9.<\/span> En cr\u00e9ant une <em>blockchain<\/em> d'actions ou d'obligations, <strong>les entreprises pourraient lever des capitaux diff\u00e9remment et potentiellement plus efficacement<\/strong>. <span class=\"\">Mais ce n'est pas si facile et pour l'instant m\u00eame les \"crowdlender\" n'ont pas encore r\u00e9ussi \u00e0 vraiment l'utiliser.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Ceci, bien qu'int\u00e9ressant, rencontre des difficult\u00e9s juridiques, financi\u00e8res et techniques.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Th\u00e8me 2. Intelligence artificielle<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.1. Parmi les concepts suivant lequel n'est pas un domaine li\u00e9 \u00e0 l'intelligence artificielle?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les r\u00e9seaux de neurones\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les r\u00e9seaux de Markov\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">La logique floue\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les heuristiques<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 2 - Les r\u00e9seaux de Markov\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Les \"r\u00e9seaux de Markov\" n'existent pas. Il y a n\u00e9anmoins un concept math\u00e9matique dit de <strong>cha\u00eene de Markov<\/strong> qui peut en effet \u00eatre utilis\u00e9 dans l'intelligence artificielle.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">La <strong>logique floue<\/strong> ( \"<em>Fuzzy Logic<\/em>\" ) est un sous-domaine de l'intelligence artificielle qui vise \u00e0 r\u00e9soudre les probl\u00e8mes o\u00f9 le raisonnement humain correspondant est bas\u00e9 sur des valeurs vagues et non sur des valeurs num\u00e9riques. L'exemple de base est l'automatisation de la temp\u00e9rature d'un bain: Si l'eau est \"froide\", ouvrez \"plus\" le robinet d'eau chaude, si l'eau est \"chaude\", fermez-le \"un peu\".<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Les <strong>heuristiques<\/strong> sont des estimations imparfaites de la progression vers un objectif sp\u00e9cifique et sont utilis\u00e9es pour r\u00e9soudre des probl\u00e8mes tr\u00e8s complexes. Ceux d'entre vous qui ont lu mon pr\u00e9c\u00e9dent article sur l'AI et les jeux vid\u00e9o le savent.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Et tout le monde sait que les <strong>r\u00e9seaux de neurones artificiels<\/strong> sont le concept \u00absexy\u00bb de la saison pour l'intelligence artificielle. On en reparle tout de suite.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.2. Comment un r\u00e9seau de neurones artificiel fonctionne t'il ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Il reproduit exactement la fa\u00e7on dont un cerveau humain fonctionne.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Il divise les probl\u00e8mes en plusieurs sous-probl\u00e8mes (couches) afin de les r\u00e9soudre progressivement.\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Il reconna\u00eet des similitudes de situations et trouve des solutions adapt\u00e9es \u00e0 des groupes de situations.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Nous ne savons pas vraiment.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 - Nous ne savons pas vraiment<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"And that is the beauty and the biggest problem of it !\">Et c'est bien toute sa beaut\u00e9 et son plus gros probl\u00e8me! <\/span><span title=\"We don't need to for them to work but we cannot really optimize them without. \">Nous n'avons pas besoin de savoir pour les utiliser, mais nous ne pouvons pas vraiment les optimiser faute de fondements th\u00e9oriques suffisants.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"In fact it is probable some kind of a mix between 1 2 and 3. \">En fait, il est probable que la bonne r\u00e9ponse soit une sorte de m\u00e9lange entre les r\u00e9ponses 1 2 et 3.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"Neural networks are somehow designed with similarities with the human brain, but up to a point.\">Les r\u00e9seaux de neurones <strong>sont con\u00e7us de mani\u00e8re similaire au cerveau humain, mais ceci jusqu'\u00e0 un certain point<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"They are designed with large numbers of interconnected &quot;neurons&quot;, and the connections between them are tuned with existing data in order to best fit inputs with expected outputs.\">Ils sont con\u00e7us avec un grand nombre de \"neurones\" interconnect\u00e9s, et les connexions entre eux sont modul\u00e9es avec les donn\u00e9es existantes afin de r\u00e9gler au mieux les entr\u00e9es aux sorties attendues. <\/span><span title=\"However human brain have a lot more neurons layers... \">Cependant, le cerveau humain pr\u00e9sente de grandes diff\u00e9rences. Il a beaucoup plus de couches de neurones par exemple...<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"The classical application example is image recognition.\"><strong>L'exemple d'application classique est la reconnaissance d'image<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"When you give a cat image to a neural network it will only have (like you) as inputs the colors of the various part (pixels) of the image.\">Lorsque vous donnez une image de chat \u00e0 un r\u00e9seau de neurones, il n'aura (comme vous) que les couleurs des diff\u00e9rentes parties (pixels) de l'image. <\/span><span title=\"But with sufficient experience ( examples ) it will be able to slowly recognize patterns, or specific colors, or shapes, that have a greater probability to be found in cat images. \">Mais avec une exp\u00e9rience suffisante (exemples), il sera capable de reconna\u00eetre lentement les motifs, ou les couleurs sp\u00e9cifiques, ou les formes, qui ont la plus grande probabilit\u00e9 d'\u00eatre trouv\u00e9s dans les images de chats.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"The way they find the &quot;right solution&quot; is unclear mathematically speaking but they do work.\">La fa\u00e7on dont ils trouvent la \u00abbonne solution\u00bb n'est pas claire math\u00e9matiquement parlant, mais ils fonctionnent. <\/span><span title=\"This is however a huge limitation to the optimization of neural networks.\"><strong>Ceci est cependant une \u00e9norme limitation \u00e0 l'optimisation des r\u00e9seaux de neurones<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"The lacks of theoretical understanding of it makes it very hard.\">Le manque de compr\u00e9hension th\u00e9orique rend cette optimisation tr\u00e8s difficile. <\/span><span title=\"For example, we don't really know the best number of neurons and\/or neuron's layers to use.\">Par exemple, nous ne connaissons pas vraiment le meilleur nombre de neurones et \/ ou de couches de neurones \u00e0 utiliser. Tout cela reste \u00e0 ce jour tr\u00e8s <\/span><span title=\"This is very empirical right now. \">empirique.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"If you want to learn more on the subject you really should watch this amazing tutorial video about neural networks.\">Si vous voulez en savoir plus sur le sujet, je vous conseille de regarder ce <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=aircAruvnKk&amp;t=991s\">tutoriel vid\u00e9o tr\u00e8s clair sur les r\u00e9seaux de neurones.<\/a><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.3. Parmi les \u00e9l\u00e9ments suivants, lequel n'est pas indispensable \u00e0 l'apprentissage d'un r\u00e9seau de neurone ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une grande puissance de calcul<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une quantit\u00e9 tr\u00e8s importante de donn\u00e9es\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une intervention humaine pour concevoir le r\u00e9seau<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Une intervention humaine pour cat\u00e9goriser les donn\u00e9es\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 - Une intervention humaine pour cat\u00e9goriser les donn\u00e9es.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Les r\u00e9seaux de neurones ont toujours besoin, pour apprendre, d'une grande puissance de calcul, d'une \u00e9norme quantit\u00e9 de donn\u00e9es provenant du monde r\u00e9el et bien s\u00fbr d'humains particuli\u00e8rement intelligents pour faire fonctionner le tout. Ceci car chaque r\u00e9seau doit \u00eatre sp\u00e9cifiquement con\u00e7u et r\u00e9gl\u00e9 avant m\u00eame l'apprentissage.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Ce dont ils n'ont pas toujours besoin, c'est d'une contribution humaine au cours de l'apprentissage.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">E<span class=\"\">n effet,<\/span><\/span><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\"> certains r\u00e9seaux de neurones artificiels \"apprennent\" au cours de ce que l'on appelle un <strong>\u00abapprentissage non supervis\u00e9\u00bb<\/strong>.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Ce qui signifie que l'ordinateur apprend sans nous, sans la moindre information sur le r\u00e9sultat qu'on souhaite le voir atteindre..<\/span>.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Pour revenir \u00e0 l'exemple de l'image du chat: vous pouvez \"donner\" au r\u00e9seau de neurones un grand nombre d'images et lui dire sur lesquelles il y a un chat.<\/span> Cela fonctionnera, et c'est ce qu'on appelle l'apprentissage \u00absupervis\u00e9\u00bb.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Mais vous pouvez aussi simplement donner les images sans dire sur lesquelle<\/span><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">s il y a un chat.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Le r\u00e9seau va quand m\u00eame pouvoir regrouper parmi elles les images pr\u00e9sentant des similitudes, des \"clusters\".<\/span> <span class=\"\">En somme le r\u00e9seau va progressivement reconnaitre les images qui ont la plus grande probabilit\u00e9 de contenir un sujet similaire, et ainsi reconna\u00eetre les chats sans pour autand savoir qu'ils sont des \u00abchats\u00bb.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 2.4. Parmi les domaines suivants, lesquels sont sujets \u00e0 des applications par les r\u00e9seaux de neurones ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Le \"big data\"\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">L'agro-alimentaire<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Le droit<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">La m\u00e9decine<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 1 2 3 et 4 - Tous...<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cependant, l'\u00e9tendue et l'avanc\u00e9e de leur utilisation varie bien s\u00fbr beaucoup entre eux.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>\"<em>big data<\/em>\"<\/strong>. L'exploration de donn\u00e9es, dite \"<em>data-mining\"<\/em>, est le processus consistant \u00e0 trouver des informations utiles cach\u00e9es dans un \u00e9norme amas de donn\u00e9es. La classification non supervis\u00e9e par les r\u00e9seaux neuronaux, et donc ses capacit\u00e9s de \u00abregroupement\u00bb, est dans ce cas tr\u00e8s utile. Attention ! la formule <em>\"data-mining\"<\/em> peut \u00e9galement repr\u00e9senter une grave erreur statistique. Lisez <a href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/pulse\/insidious-threat-data-mining-bias-matthias-knab\/\">ceci<\/a> pour plus d'information \u00e0 ce sujet.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Agro-alimentaire<\/strong>. La cr\u00e9ation de \u00abnez\u00bb num\u00e9riques capables de reconna\u00eetre les odeurs par l'interm\u00e9diaire de r\u00e9seaux neuronaux pourrait permettre aux fabricants de produits alimentaires de mieux contr\u00f4ler la qualit\u00e9 et de d\u00e9tecter plus syst\u00e9matiquement les anomalies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><strong>Le droit<\/strong>. Des projets consistants \u00e0 utiliser les r\u00e9seaux de neurone dans l'\u00e9valuation automatique des clause des contrats sont en cours par exemple. Cependant, dans le domaine du droit, les applications restent limit\u00e9es, pour le moment, \u00e0 des t\u00e2ches tr\u00e8s standardis\u00e9es. Les avocats ont encore du temps devant eux avant de fermer boutique.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>La M\u00e9decine<\/strong>. <span class=\"\">Vrai, en particulier dans le domaine de la pr\u00e9diction et du diagnostic des cancers.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\">Th\u00e8me 3. Ordinateurs quantiques<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.1. Parmi les organisations suivantes, laquelle ne travaille pas actuellement sur la conception d'ordinateurs quantiques ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">NSA<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">D-Wave<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">IBM<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Cyberdyne Systems<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 4 ( un point suppl\u00e9mentaire si vous avez rep\u00e9r\u00e9 la <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skynet_(Terminator)\">r\u00e9f\u00e9rence cin\u00e9matographique\u00a0<\/a>! )<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dwavesys.com\/home\">D-Wave<\/a> <span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">est une vraie entreprise d\u00e9di\u00e9e \u00e0 conception d'ordinateurs quantiques. IBM et Google m\u00e8nent \u00e9galement des recherches, tout comme la NSA. Et il y a d'autres acteurs bien sur. <strong>Les \"ordinateurs quantiques\" existants sont encore des prototypes<\/strong> \u00e0 la fois imposants, peu puissants, bourr\u00e9s de probl\u00e8mes non r\u00e9solus et loin d'\u00eatres utilisables par le commun des mortels, mais ils existent.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.2. En quoi les ordinateurs quantiques sont-ils suppos\u00e9s surpasser les ordinateurs traditionnels ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils devraient pouvoir effectuer les calculs de base beaucoup plus rapidement.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils devraient utiliser beaucoup moins d'\u00e9nergie pour cela.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils devraient traiter certains probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques plus efficacement.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Ils seront beaucoup plus beaux.\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 3 - Ils devraient traiter certains probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques beaucoup plus rapidement.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">En r\u00e9alit\u00e9, la r\u00e9ponse 1 est compl\u00e8tement fausse ! <strong>Les ordinateurs quantiques purs seraient m\u00eame mauvais<\/strong> (lents et peu surs) <strong>pour r\u00e9soudre les calculs de base<\/strong> (genre 1 + 1). Les ordinateurs traditionnels resteraient utiles pour cela.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Mais ils devraient \u00eatre extr\u00eamement adapt\u00e9s \u00e0 la r\u00e9solution de certains probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques tr\u00e8s sp\u00e9cifiques.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>L\u00e0 o\u00f9 ils sont cens\u00e9s exceller, ce sont les \"probl\u00e8mes d'optimisation\"<\/strong>. La puissance de calcul n\u00e9cessaire \u00e0 r\u00e9soudre ses probl\u00e8mes augmente en effet exponentiellement avec la complexit\u00e9 de ceux-ci, rendant l'utilisation d'ordinateurs traditionnels vite limit\u00e9e. Hors la <strong>puissance de calcul des ordinateurs quantique augmente \u00e9galement exponentiellement avec leur taille<\/strong>, d'o\u00f9 l'int\u00e9r\u00eat.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">C'est pourquoi les ordinateurs quantiques seront probablement des \u00abordinateurs hybrides\u00bb, ce qui signifie qu'ils auront une partie informatique traditionnelle et partie quantique, et ils utiliseront le meilleur des deux syst\u00e8mes.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.3. En quoi les ordinateurs quantiques pourraient-ils repr\u00e9senter une menace pour la s\u00e9curit\u00e9 sur internet ?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Leur puissance de calcul leur permettrait de rendre obsol\u00e8tes certains algorithmes par pur calcul de toutes les combinaisons.\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Ils pourraient \u00eatre capables de \u00abcasser\u00bb certains algorithmes li\u00e9s \u00e0 la s\u00e9curit\u00e9.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Ils permettraient la cr\u00e9ation d'algorithmes incassables.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">Ils rendraient possible la t\u00e9l\u00e9portation!<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"R\u00e9ponse 2 - They could be able to &quot;crack&quot; certain security related algorithms \"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 2 - Ils pourraient \u00eatre capables de \"casser\" certains algorithmes li\u00e9s \u00e0 la s\u00e9curit\u00e9<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"Internet security algorithms ( the &quot;functions&quot; that are for example turning your password into something very very complex, like the SHA256 algorithm ) are created by maths problems that are not solvable with current computers.\">Les algorithmes \u00e0 la base de la s\u00e9curit\u00e9 sur internet (les \"fonctions\" qui par exemple transforment votre mot de passe en quelque chose de tr\u00e8s tr\u00e8s complexe, comme l'algorithme SHA256) sont cr\u00e9\u00e9s par des<strong> probl\u00e8mes math\u00e9matiques qui ne peuvent \u00eatre r\u00e9solus facilement avec les ordinateurs actuels<\/strong> (probl\u00e8me d'optimisation...). <\/span><span title=\"This means that the only way to &quot;crack&quot; them is to try all possibilities and see if it works.\">Cela signifie que le seul moyen de les \"casser\" est d'essayer toutes les possibilit\u00e9s et de voir si cela fonctionne. <\/span><span title=\"This is called &quot;brute force&quot;.\">C'est ce qu'on appelle \"force brute\". <\/span><span title=\"And it does not work when dealing with sufficiently long passwords. \">Et cela ne fonctionne pas avec des mots de passe suffisamment longs.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"But, due to the way quantum computers are &quot;supposed&quot; to work they might be able to find the solutions to those specific problems, thus reducing considerably the time needed to crack those codes, making them possibly useless. \">Mais, de part la fa\u00e7on dont les ordinateurs quantiques sont \"suppos\u00e9s\" fonctionner, ils pourraient <strong>trouver bien plus facilement les solutions \u00e0 certains de ces probl\u00e8mes sp\u00e9cifiques,<\/strong> r\u00e9duisant ainsi consid\u00e9rablement le temps n\u00e9cessaire pour d\u00e9chiffrer ces codes, les rendant potentiellement inutiles.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"This is no surprise that the NSA decided to launch a quantum computer project... \">Ce n'est donc pas une surprise que la <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/national-security\/nsa-seeks-to-build-quantum-computer-that-could-crack-most-types-of-encryption\/2014\/01\/02\/8fff297e-7195-11e3-8def-a33011492df2_story.html?Post%20generic=%3Ftid%3Dsm_twitter_washingtonpost&amp;noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.89ebc91fbcf1\">NSA ait d\u00e9cid\u00e9 de lancer un projet de recherche autour de l'ordinateur quantique<\/a> ...<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"But don't worry too much either because this is like the weapons vs armor problem, and people are already working on quantum-proof security algorithms. \">Mais ne vous inqui\u00e9tez pas trop non plus. En effet, c'est un peu l'\u00e9ternelle course entre l'arme et l'armure, et de nombreuses personnes travaillent d\u00e9j\u00e0 sur des <strong>algorithmes de s\u00e9curit\u00e9 qui pourraient r\u00e9sister \u00e0 cette nouvelle technologie<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"( answer 4 is actually not that stupid as there do exits a &quot;quantum teleportation effect&quot; ! See here )\">(Enfin la r\u00e9ponse 4 n'est en fait pas aussi stupide qu'elle en a l'air car il existe bien un effet dit de \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantum_teleportation\">t\u00e9l\u00e9portation quantique<\/a>\"! )<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Question 3.4. Parmi les probl\u00e8mes suivants (parmi beaucoup d'autres), lequel <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">n'est pas<\/span> un probl\u00e8me r\u00e9el rencontr\u00e9 dans la conception d'ordinateurs quantiques ?\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol style=\"text-align: justify;\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">R\u00e9ussir \u00e0 maintenir la coh\u00e9rence quantique (l'\u00e9tat quantique permettant d'utiliser l'ordinateur) assez longtemps.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Augmenter le nombre de qubits (\u00e9l\u00e9ments fondamentaux de l'ordinateur quantique) \u00e0 un niveau rendant l'ordinateur utile.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\">Cr\u00e9er des qubits qui sont assez petits pour tenir dans quelque chose de plus petit qu'un entrep\u00f4t industriel.<\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span class=\"\">Trouver un moyen fiable de d\u00e9tecter et corriger les erreurs de traitement de l'ordinateur quantique.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[spoiler title='R\u00e9ponse...' style='green' collapse_link='true']<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>R\u00e9ponse 3 - Cr\u00e9er des qubits suffisamment petits.\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\"><span title=\"Current designed &quot;qubits&quot; are obviously very small no problem with them.\">Les \u00abqubits\u00bb con\u00e7us actuellement sont \u00e9videmment tr\u00e8s petits et ne posent aucun probl\u00e8me de taille... \u00e0 eux seuls. <\/span><span title=\"But the whole computers are still very very big indeed, and might need some miniaturization.\">Mais les ordinateurs entiers sont encore tr\u00e8s tr\u00e8s imposants, et une miniaturisation est n\u00e9cessaire. <\/span><span title=\"But there are way more urgent problems to solve before that, among which are : \">Mais la r\u00e9alit\u00e9 est qu'il y a des probl\u00e8mes beaucoup plus urgents \u00e0 r\u00e9soudre avant cela, parmi lesquels:<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"1 - Maintaining quantum coherence long enough is indeed a real problem.\">1 - <strong>Maintenir assez longtemps la coh\u00e9rence quantique<\/strong>. <\/span><span title=\"Without it, no computation is possible.\">Sans cela, aucun calcul n'est possible. <\/span><span title=\"Materials ans designs of qubits is far from standardized, but for now maintaining coherence (the &quot;state&quot; of the computer in which it does have a usable quantum behavior) often imply cooling the qubits down to near absolute zero and isolating them from any source of\">Les mat\u00e9riaux et la conception des qubits sont loin d'\u00eatre standardis\u00e9s, mais pour le moment maintenir la coh\u00e9rence (\"l'\u00e9tat\" de l'ordinateur dans lequel il a un comportement quantique utilisable) implique souvent de refroidir les qubits jusqu'au quasi z\u00e9ro absolu et de les isoler de toute source possible de <\/span><span title=\"de-coherence.\">d\u00e9-coh\u00e9rence. Ce n'est p<\/span><span title=\"Not something you will be able to do in your laptop soon... \">as quelque chose que vous serez capable de faire dans votre ordinateur portable avant longtemps...<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"2 - The REAL advantage of quantum computing is in its ability to exponentially scale its computing power with the number of qubits.\">2 - L'avantage r\u00e9el de l'informatique quantique r\u00e9side dans sa capacit\u00e9 \u00e0 augmenter de fa\u00e7on exponentielle sa puissance de calcul avec le nombre de ses qubits. <\/span><span title=\"Under a certain number of them (around 50, but this is very uncertain actually) there is no point in it, traditional computers will always be better, whatever the computation.\">Sous un certain nombre d'entre eux (environ 50, mais ce chiffre est tr\u00e8s incertain ) \u00e7a ne sert \u00e0 rien, les ordinateurs traditionnels seront meilleurs, quel que soit le calcul. <\/span><span title=\"This number is called the &quot;quantum supremacy point&quot;.\">Ce nombre s'appelle le \"<strong>point de supr\u00e9matie quantique<\/strong>\". <\/span><span title=\"Unfortunately linking numerous qubits is very far from been easy. \">Malheureusement lier de nombreux qubits entre eux est tr\u00e8s loin d'\u00eatre une t\u00e2che facile.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span title=\"4 - This will also need a lot of very smart thinking.\">4 -<strong> D\u00e9tecter et traiter les erreurs. <\/strong><\/span><span title=\"IBM among others work a lot on this specific problem.\">IBM, entre autres, travaille beaucoup sur ce probl\u00e8me sp\u00e9cifique. <\/span><span title=\"Normal bits are subject to physical errors ( oups it is a 0 and it should be a 1) but corrections are mastered.\">Les bits normaux sont sujets \u00e0 des erreurs physiques (\"oups c'est un 0 et il devrait y avoir un 1\") mais les corrections sont ma\u00eetris\u00e9es. <\/span><span title=\"Qubits are very subject to errors do to their fragile quantum state.\">Les qubits sont fortement sujets aux erreurs du fait de leur fragile \u00e9tat quantique. <\/span><span title=\"A single temperature fluctuation can incur important variations that are not planned.\">Une seule fluctuation de temp\u00e9rature peut entra\u00eener des variations importantes qui ne sont pas planifi\u00e9es. Rep\u00e9rer <\/span><span title=\"Spotting and correcting errors is very needed to construct a reliable quantum computer. \">et corriger les erreurs est donc absolument n\u00e9cessaire pour construire un ordinateur quantique fiable.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" title=\"Conclusion for this question : don't worry too much about quantum computers, they are not ready yet.\">Conclusion g\u00e9n\u00e9rale pour cette question et cette partie : ne vous inqui\u00e9tez pas trop concernant les ordinateurs quantiques, <strong>ils ne sont pas encore pr\u00eats ! <\/strong>Mais continuer de vous informer...<strong>\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">[\/spoiler]<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span id=\"result_box\" class=\"\" lang=\"fr\" style=\"font-size: 12pt;\" tabindex=\"-1\">J'esp\u00e8re que vous avez bien r\u00e9ussi, mais j'esp\u00e8re surtout que vous avez appris deux trois choses et que cela vous a permis de vous pencher un peu plus sur ces sujets, ce qui \u00e9tait le but premier de tout cela.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><span class=\"\">Pour ceux d'entre vous qui poss\u00e8de de meilleures connaissances que moi sur ces sujets (et vous \u00eates nombreux !), veuillez corriger les erreurs que j'ai pu commettre dans les commentaires.<\/span> <span class=\"\">Je serai bien s\u00fbr ravi d'apprendre et de mettre \u00e0 jour cet article !<\/span><\/span><\/p>","_fr_post_name":"quizz-tech-estival","_fr_post_excerpt":"","_fr_post_title":"Le quizz techno de l'\u00e9t\u00e9","edit_language":"fr","footnotes":""},"categories":[12,11,13,10],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-464","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-artificial-intelligence-technology","category-blockchain","category-quantum-computing","category-technology"],"aioseo_notices":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/464","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=464"}],"version-history":[{"count":50,"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/464\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":525,"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/464\/revisions\/525"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=464"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=464"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/kudueconomics.eu\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=464"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}